Sentence and case syntax

160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences

CHAPTER I.—Sentences.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.

161. Sentences may be classified as follows:—

1. DECLARATIVE, which state something; as,—

puer scrībit, the boy is writing.

2. INTERROGATIVE, Which ask a question; as,—

quid puer scrībit, what is the boy writing?

3. EXCLAMATORY, which are in the form of an exclamation; as,—

quot librōs scrībit, how many books he writes!

4. IMPERATIVE, which express a command or an admonition; as,—

scrībe, write!

FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sentence-Questions.

1. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs, such as—quis, quī, quālis, quantus, quot, quotiēns, quō, quā, etc. Thus:—

quis venit, who comes? quam dīū manēbit, how long will he stay?

2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced—

a) By nōnne implying the answer 'yes'; as,—

nōnne vidētis, do you not see?

b) By num implying the answer 'no'; as,—

num exspectās, do you expect? (i.e. you don't expect, do you?)

c) by the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which usually stands first), and simply asking for information; as,—

vidēsne, do you see?

A question introduced by -ne may receive a special implication from the context; as,—

sēnsistīne, did you not perceive?

d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of surprise or indignation; as,—

tū in jūdicum cōnspectum venīre audēs, do you dare to come into the presence of the judges?

3. Rhetorical Questions. These are questions merely in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, who doubts? (= no one doubts).

4. Double Questions. Double Questions are introduced by the following particles:—

utrum ... an;

-ne ... an;

—— ... an.

If the second member is negative, annōn (less often necne) is used. Examples:—

a. An was not originally confined to double questions, but introduced single questions, having the force of -ne, nōnne, or num. Traces of this use survive in classical Latin; as,—

Ā rēbus gerendīs abstrahit senectūs. Quibus? An eīs quae juventūte geruntur et vīrībus? Old age (it is alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. From what pursuits? Is it not merely from those which are carried on by the strength of youth?

5. Answers.

a. The answer YES is expressed by ita, etiam, vērō, sānē, or by repetition of the verb; as,—

'vīsne locum mūtēmus?' 'sānē'. 'Shall we change the place?' 'Certainly.'

'estīsne vōs lēgatī?' 'sumus.' 'Are you envoys?' 'Yes.'

b. The answer NO is expressed by nōn, minimē, minimē vērō, or by repeating the verb with a negative; as,—

'jam ea praeteriit?' 'nōn.' 'Has it passed?' 'No.'

'estne frāter intus?' 'nōn est.' 'Is your brother within?' 'No.'

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

163. The two essential parts of a sentence are the SUBJECT and PREDICATE.

The SUBJECT is that concerning which something is said, asked, etc. The PREDICATE is that which is said, asked, etc., concerning the SUBJECT.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called SIMPLE SENTENCES, those containing more are called COMPOUND SENTENCES. Thus puer librōs legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple Sentence; but puer librōs legit et epistulās scrībit, the boy reads books and writes letters, is a Compound Sentence. The different members of a Compound Sentence are called Clauses.

165. COÖRDINATE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Clauses which stand upon an equality are called COÖRDINATE; a Clause dependent on another is called SUBORDINATE. Thus in puer librōs legit et epistulās scrībit the two clauses are Coördinate; but in puer librōs legit quōs pater scrībit, the boy reads the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the first.

CHAPTER II.—Syntax of Nouns.

SUBJECT.

166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nominative Case.

1. The Subject may be—

a) A Noun or Pronoun; as,—

puer scrībit, the boy writes;

hīc scrībit, this man writes.

b) An Infinitive; as,—

decōrum est prō patriā morī, to die for one's county is a noble thing.

c) A Clause; as,—

opportūnē accīdit quod vīdistī, it happened opportunely that you saw.

2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb and is not separately expressed; as,—

scrībō, I write; videt, he sees.

a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed; as,—

ego scrībō et tū legis, I write, and you read.

3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the context, especially the auxiliary sum; as,—

rēctē ille (sc. facit), he does rightly; consul profectus (sc. est), the consul set out.

PREDICATE NOUNS.

167. A PREDICATE NOUN is one connected with the Subject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.

168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case;[47] as,—

Cicerō ōrātor fuit, Cicero was an orator;

Numa creātus est rēx, Numa was elected king.

1. when possible, the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subect in Gender also; as,—

philosophia est vītae magistra, philosophy is the guide of life.

2. Besides sum, the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predicate Noun are—

a) fiō, ēvādō, exsistō; maneō; videor; as,—

Croesus nōn semper mānsit rēx, Croesus did not always remain king.

b) Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding, etc.; as, creor, appellor, habeor; as,—

Rōmulus rēx appellatus est, Romulus was called king;

habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god.

APPOSITIVES.

169. 1. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun denoting the same person or thing; as,—

Cicerō cōnsul, Cicero, the Consul;

urbs Rōma, the city Rome.

2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as,—

opera Cicerōnīs ōrātōris, the works of Cicero, the orator;

apud Hērodotum, patrem historiae, in the works of Herodotus, the father of history.

3. When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gender also; as,—

assentātiō adjūtrīx vitiōrum, flattery, the promoter of evils.

4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with or without a preposition; as,—

Corinthī, Achāiae urbe, or in Achāiae urbe, at Corinth, a city of Greece.

5. PARTITIVE APPOSITION. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by an Appositive denoting a part; as,—

mīlitēs, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restitērunt, the soldiers, all the bravest of them, resisted the enemy.

THE CASES.

THE NOMINATIVE.

170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. See §§ 166-169.

THE VOCATIVE.

171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address; as,—

crēdite mihi, jūdicēs, believe me, judges.

1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used for the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose; as, audī tū, populus Albānus, hear ye, Alban people!

2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the Nominative; as, nāte, mea magna potentia sōlus, O son, alone the source of my great power.

THE ACCUSATIVE.

172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object.

173. The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations:—

A. The PERSON OR THING AFFECTED by the action; as,—

cōnsulem interfēcit, he slew the consul;

legō librum, I read the book.

B. The RESULT PRODUCED by the action; as,—

librum scrīpsī, I wrote a book (i.e. produced one);

templum struit, he constructs a temple.

174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are TRANSITIVE VERBS.

a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used without it. They are then said to be employed absolutely; as,—

rūmor est meum gnātum amāre, it is rumored that my son is in love.

Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.

175. 1. This is the most frequent use of the Accusative; as in—

parentēs amāmus, we love our parents;

mare aspicit, he gazes at the sea.

2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are worthy of note:—

a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposition, become Transitive. Thus:—

1) Compounds of circum, praeter, trāns; as,—

hostēs circumstāre, to surround the enemy;

urbem praeterīre, to pass by the city;

mūrōs trānscendere, to climb over the walls.

2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub; as,—

adīre urbem, to visit the city;

peragrāre Italiam, to travel through Italy;

inīre magistrātum, to take office;

subīre perīculum, to undergo danger.

b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have also a Transitive use; as,—

queror fātum, I lament my fate;

doleō ejus mortem, I grieve at his death;

rīdeō tuam stultitiam, I laugh at your folly.

So also lūgeō, maereō, mourn; gemō, bemoan; horreō, shudder, and others.

c) The impersonals decet, it becomes; dēdecet, it is unbecoming; juvat, it pleases, take the Accusative of the Person Affected; as,—

mē decet haec dīcere, it becomes me to say this.

d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage, are employed as Middles (§ 256, 1; 2), and take the Accusative as Object; as,—

galeam induitur, he puts on his helmet;

cīnctus tempora hederā, having bound his temples with ivy;

nōdō sinus collēcta, having gathered her dress in a knot.

Accusative of the Result Produced.

176. 1. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions as—

librum scrībō, I write a book;

domum aedificō, I build a house.

2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a Neuter Pronoun, or Adjective, as an Accusative of Result. Thus:—

a) A Neuter Pronoun; as,—

haec gemēbat, he made these moans;

idem glōriārī, to make the same boast;

eadem peccat, he makes the same mistakes.

b) A Neuter Adjective,—particularly Adjectives of number or amount,—multum, multa, pauca, etc.; also nihil; as,—

multa egeō, I have many needs;

pauca studet, he has few interests;

multum valet, he has great strength;

nihil peccat, he makes no mistake.

NOTE.—In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as—

minitantem vāna, making vain threats;

acerba tuēns, giving a fierce look;

dulce loquentem, sweetly talking.

3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out of this Accusative; as,—

multum sunt in vēnātiōne, they are much engaged in hunting.

a. So also plūrimum, very greatly; plērumque, generally; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why? nihil, not at all; etc.

4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a COGNATE ACCUSATIVE, and is usually modified by an Adjective; as,—

sempiternam servitūtem serviat, let him serve an everlasting slavery;

vītam dūram vīxī, I have lived a hard life.

a. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred etymology, but merely of kindred meaning; as,—

stadium currit, he runs a race;

Olympia vincit, he wins an Olympic victory.

5. The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of tasting and smelling; as,—

piscis mare sapit, the fish tastes of the sea;

ōrātiōnēs antīquitātem redolent, the speeches smack of the past.

Two Accusatives—Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.

177. Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Showing, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative; as,—

mē hērēdem fēcit, he made me heir.

Here mē is Direct Object, hērēdēm Predicate Accusative. So also—

eum jūdicem cēpēre, they took him as judge;

urbem Rōmam vocāvit, he called the city Rome;

sē virum praestitit, he showed himself a man.

2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun; as,—

hominēs caecōs reddit cupiditās, covetousness renders men blind;

Apollō Sōcratem sapientissimum jūdicāvit, Apollo adjudged Socrates the wisest man.

a. Some Verbs, as reddō, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predicate Accusative.

3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 168, 2, b): as,—

urbs Rōma vocāta est, the city was called Rome.

a. Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction; reddō and efficiō, for example, never take it.

Two Accusatives—Person and Thing.

178. 1. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced. Thus:—

a) Verbs of requesting and demanding; as,—

ōtium dīvōs rogat, he asks the gods for rest;

mē duās ōrātiōnēs postulās, you demand two speeches of me.

So also ōrō, poscō, reposcō, exposcō, flāgitō, though some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person; as,—

opem ā tē poscō, I demand aid of you.

b) Verbs of teaching (doceō and its compounds); as,—

tē litterās doceō, I teach you your letters.

c) Verbs of inquiring; as,—

tē haec rogō, I ask you this;

tē sententiam rogō, I ask you your opinion.

d) Several Special Verbs; viz. moneō, admoneō, commoneō, cōgō, accūsō, arguō, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing; as,—

hōc tē moneō, I give you this advice;

mē id accūsās, you bring this accusation against me;

id cōgit nōs nātūra, nature compels us (to) this.

e) One Verb of concealing, cēlō; as,—

nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem, I have not concealed the conversation from you.

2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,—

omnēs artēs ēdoctus est, he was taught all accomplishments;

rogātus sum sententiam, I was asked my opinion;

multa ādmonēmur, we are given many admonitions.

a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.

Two Accusatives with Compounds.

179. 1. Transitive compounds of trāns may take two Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition, as,—

mīlitēs flūmen trānsportat, he leads his soldiers across the river.

2. With other compounds this construction is rare.

3. In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is retained; as,—

mīlitēs flūmen trādūcēbantur, the soldiers were led across the river.

Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.

180. 1. The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the part to which an action or quality refers; as,—

tremit artūs, literally, he trembles as to his limbs, i.e. his limbs tremble;

nūda genū, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee bare;

manūs revinctus, lit. tied as to the hands, i.e. with hands tied.

2. Note that this construction—

a) Is borrowed from the Greek.

b) Is chiefly confined to poetry.

c) Usually refers to a part of the body.

d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.

Accusative of Time and Space.

181. 1. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are denoted by the Accusative; as,—

quadrāgintā annōs vīxit, he lived forty years;

hīc locus passūs sescentōs aberat, this place was six hundred paces away;

arborēs quīnquāgintā pedēs altae, trees fifty feet high;

abhinc septem annōs, seven years ago.

2. Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per; as,

per biennium labōrāvī, I toiled throughout two years.

Accusative of Limit of Motion.

182. 1. The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used—

a) With names of Towns, Small Islands, and Peninsulas; as,—

Rōmam vēnī, I came to Rome;

Athēnās proficīscitur, he sets out for Athens;

Dēlum pervēnī, I arrived at Delos.

b) With domum, domōs, rūs; as,—

domum revertitur, he returns home;

rūs ībō, I shall go to the country.

NOTE.—When domus means house (i.e. building), it takes a preposition; as,—

in domum veterem remigrāre, to move back to an old house.

2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require a Preposition to denote Limit of Motion; as,—

ad Italiam vēnit, he came to Italy.

a. The Preposition is also customary with the Accusatives urbem or oppidum when they stand in apposition with the name of a town; as,—

Thalam, in oppidum magnum, to Thala, a large town;

Genavam ad oppidum, to the town Geneva.

b. The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be combined with the name of a country or other word dependent upon a preposition; as,—

Thūriōs in Italiam pervectus, carried to Thurii in Italy;

cum Acēn ad exercitum vēnisset, when he had come to the army at Ace.

3. To denote toward, to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of, ad is used; as,—

ad Tarentum vēnī, I came to the vicinity of Tarentum;

ad Cannās pugna facta est, a battle was fought near Cannae.

4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used without a preposition to express the limit of motion; as,—

Italiam vēnit, he came to Italy.

5. The goal notion seems to represent the original function of the Accusative Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the phrase īnfitiās īre, to deny (lit. to go to a denial), and a few other similar expressions.

Accusative in Exclamations.

183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjective, is used in Exclamations; as,—

mē miserum, ah, wretched me!

Ō fallācem spem, oh, deceptive hope!

Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive.

184. The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusative; as,—

videō hominem abīre, I see that the man is going away.

Other Uses of the Accusative.

185. Here belong—

1. Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives; viz.—

id genus, of that kind; as, hominēs id genus, men of that kind (originally hominēs, id genus hominum, men, that kind of men);

virīle secus, muliebre secus, of the male sex, of the female sex;

meam vicem, tuam vicem, etc., for my part, etc.;

bonam partem, magnam partem, in large part;

maximam partem, for the most part.

2. Some phrases of doubtful origin; as,—

THE DATIVE.

186. The Dative case, in general, expresses relations which are designated in English by the prepositions to and for.

Dative of Indirect Object.

187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the person to whom something is given, said, or done. Thus:—

I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accusative; as,—

hanc pecūniam mihi dat, he gives me this money;

haec nōbīs dīxit, he said this to us.

a. Some verbs which take this construction (particularly dōnō and circumdō) admit also the Accusative of the person along with the Ablative of the thing. Thus:—

Either Themistoclī mūnera dōnāvit, he presented gifts to Themistocles, or

Themistoclem mūneribus dōnāvit, he presented Themistocles with gifts;

urbī mūrōs circumdat, he builds walls around the city, or

urbem mūrīs circumdat, he surrounds the city with walls

II. With many intransitive verbs; as,—

nūllī labōrī cēdit, he yields to no labor.

a. Here belong many verbs signifying favor,[48] help, injure, please, displease, trust, distrust, command, obey, serve, resist, indulge, spare, pardon, envy, threaten, be angry, believe, persuade, and the like; as,—

Caesar populāribus favet, Caesar favors (i.e. is favorable to) the popular party;

amīcīs cōnfīdō, I trust (to) my friends;

Orgetorīx Helvētiīs persuāsit, Orgetorix persuaded (made it acceptable to) the Helvetians;

bonīs nocet quī malīs parcit, he injures (does harm to) the good, who spares the bad.

NOTE.—It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are intransitive, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same apparent English equivalence are transitive and govern the Accusative; as, juvō, laedō, dēlectō. Thus: audentēs deus juvat, God helps the bold; nēminem laesit he injured no one.

b. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally; as,—

tibi parcitur, you are spared;

mihi persuādētur, I am being persuaded;

eī invidētur, he is envied.

c. Some of the foregoing verbs admit also a Direct Object in connection with the Dative; as,—

mihi mortem minitātur, he threatens me with death (threatens death to me).

III. With many verbs compounded with the prepositions: ad, ante, circum, com,[49] in, inter, ob, post, prae, prō, sub, super.

These verbs fall into two main classes,—

1. Many simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indirect object become capable of doing so when compounded with a preposition; as,—

afflīctīs succurrit, he helps the aflicted;

exercituī praefuit, he was in command of the army;

intersum cōnsiliīs, I share in the deliberations.

2. Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become capable, when compounded, of taking a dative also as indirect object; as,—

pecūniae pudōrem antepōnit, he puts honor before money;

inicere spem amīcīs, to inspire hope in one's friends;

mūnītiōni Labiēnum praefēcit, he put Labienus in charge of the fortifications.

Dative of Reference.

188. 1. The Dative of Reference denotes the person to whom a statement refers, of whom it is true, or to whom it is of interest; as,—

mihi ante oculōs versāris, you hover before my eyes (lit. hover before the eyes to me);

illī sevēritās amōrem nōn dēminuit, in his case severity did not diminish love (lit. to him severity did not diminish);

interclūdere inimīcīs commeātum, to cut of the supplies of the enemy.

a. Note the phrase alicui interdīcere aquā et īgnī, to interdict one from fire and water.

NOTE.—The Dative of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole. It is often used where, according to the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive; so in the first and third of the above examples.

2. Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are—

a) Dative of the Local Standpoint. This is regularly a participle; as,—

oppidum prīmum Thessaliae venientibus ab Ēpīrō, the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (lit. to those coming from Epirus).

b) Ethical Dative. This name is given to those Dative constructions of the personal pronouns in which the connection of the Dative with the rest of the sentence is of the very slightest sort; as,—

tū mihi istīus audāciam dēfendis? tell me, do you defend that man's audacity?

quid mihi Celsus agit? what is my Celsus doing?

c) Dative of Person Judging; as,—

erit ille mihi semper deus, he will always be a god to me (i.e. in my opinion);

quae ista servitūs tam clāro hominī, how can that be slavery to so illustrious a man (i.e. to his mind)!

d) Dative of Separation. Some verbs of taking away, especially compounds of ab, dē, ex, ad, govern a Dative of the person, less often of the thing; as,—

honōrem dētrāxērunt hominī, they took away the honor from the man;

Caesar rēgī tetrarchiam ēripuit, Caesar took the tetrarchy away from the king;

silicī scintillam excūdit, he struck a spark from the flint.

Dative of Agency.

189. The Dative is used to denote agency—

1. Regularly with the Gerundive; as,—

haec nōbīs agenda sunt, these things must be done by us;

mihi eundum est, I must go (lit. it must be gone by me).

a. To avoid ambiguity, ā with the Ablative is sometimes used with the Gerundive; as,—

hostibus ā nōbīs parcendum est, the enemy must be spared by us.

2. Much less frequently with the compound tenses of the passive voice and the perfect passive participle; as,—

disputātiō quae mihi nūper habita est, the discussion which was recently conducted by me.

3. Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive; as,—

honesta bonīs virīs quaeruntur, noble ends are sought by good men.

Dative of Possession.

190. The Dative of Possession occurs with the verb esse in such expressions as:—

mihi est liber, I have a book;

mihi nōmen est Mārcus, I have the name Marcus.

1. But with nōmen est the name is more commonly attracted into the Dative; as, mihi Mārcō nōmen est.

Dative of Purpose or Tendency.

191. The Dative of Purpose or Tendency designates the end toward which an action is directed or the direction in which it tends. It is used—

1. Unaccompanied by another Dative; as,—

castrīs locum dēligere, to choose a place for a camp;

legiōnēs praesidiō relinquere, to leave the legions as a guard (lit. for a guard);

receptuī canere, to sound the signal for a retreat.

2. Much more frequently in connection with another Dative of the person:—

a) Especially with some form of esse; as,—

fortūnae tuae mihi cūrae sunt, your fortunes are a care to me (lit. for a care);

quibus sunt odiō, to whom they are an object of hatred;

cui bonō? to whom is it of advantage?

b) With other verbs; as,—

hōs tibi mūnerī mīsit, he has sent these to you for a present;

Pausaniās Atticīs vēnit auxiliō, Pausanias came to the aid of the Athenians (lit. to the Athenians for aid).

3. In connection with the Gerundive; as,—

decemvirī lēgibus scrībundīs, decemvirs for codifying the laws;

mē gerendō bellō ducem creāvēre, me they have made leader for carrying on the war.

NOTE.—This construction with the gerundive is not common till Livy.

Dative with Adjectives.

192. The use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds very closely to its use with verbs. Thus:—

1. Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object it occurs with adjectives signifying: friendly, unfriendly, similar, dissimilar, equal, near, related to, etc.; as,—

mihi inimīcus, hostile to me;

sunt proximī Germānis, they are next to the Germans;

noxiae poena pār estō, let the penalty be equal to the damage.

a. For propior and proximus with the Accusative, see § 141, 3.

2. Corresponding to the Dative of Purpose, the Dative occurs with adjectives signifying: suitable, adapted, fit; as,—

castrīs idōneus locus, a place fit for a camp;

apta diēs sacrificiō, a day suitable for a sacrifice.

NOTE.—Adjectives of this last class often take the Accusative with ad.

Dative of Direction.

193. In the poets the Dative is occasionally used to denote the direction of motion; as,—

it clāmor caelō, the shout goes heavenward;

cinerēs rīvō fluentī jace, cast the ashes toward a flowing stream.

1. By an extension of this construction the poets sometimes use the Dative to denote the limit of motion; as,—

dum Latiō deōs īnferret, till he should bring his gods to Latium.

THE GENITIVE.

194. The Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.

195. With Nouns the Genitive is the case which defines the meaning of the limited noun more closely. This relation is generally indicated in English by the preposition of. There are the following varieties of the Genitive with Nouns:—

196. Genitive of Origin; as,—

Mārcī fīlius, the son of Marcus.

197. Genitive of Material; as,—

talentum aurī, a talent of gold;

acervus frūmentī, a pile of grain.

198. Genitive of Possession or Ownership; as,—

domus Cicerōnis, Cicero's house.

1. Here belongs the Genitive with causā and grātiā. The Genitive always precedes; as,—

hominum causā, for the sake of men;

meōrum amīcōrum grātiā, for the sake of my friends.

2. The Possessive Genitive is often used predicatively, especially with esse and fierī; as,—

domus est rēgis, the house is the king's;

stultī est in errōre manēre, it is (the part) of a fool to remain in error;

dē bellō jūdicium imperātōris est, nōn mīlitum, the decision concerning war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers.

a. For the difference in force between the Possessive Genitive and the Dative of Possession, see § 359, 1.

199. Subjective Genitive. This denotes the person who makes or produces something or who has a feeling; as,—

dicta Platōnis, the utterances of Plato;

timōrēs līberōrum, the fears of the children.

200. Objective Genitive. This denotes the object of an action or feeling; as,—

metus deōrum, the fear of the gods;

amor lībertātis, love of liberty;

cōnsuētūdō bonōrum hominum, intercourse with good men.

1. This relation is often expressed by means of prepositions; as,—

amor ergā parentēs, love toward one's parents.

201. Genitive of the Whole. This designates the whole of which a part is taken. It is used—

1. With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Ordinal Numerals; as,—

magna pars hominum, a great part of mankind;

duo mīlia peditum, two thousand foot-soldiers;

quis mortālium, who of mortals?

major frātrum, the elder of the brothers;

gēns maxima Germānōrum, the largest tribe of the Germans;

prīmus omnium, the first of all.

a. Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or dē with the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quīdam; as,—

fidēlissimus dē servīs, the most trusty of the slaves;

quīdam ex amīcīs, certain of his friends;

ūnus ex mīlitibus, one of the soldiers.

b. In English we often use of where there is no relation of whole to part. In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the Genitive; as,—

quot vōs estis, how many of you are there?

trecentī conjūrāvimus, three hundred of us have conspired (i.e. we, three hundred in number).

2. The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nominative or Accusative Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives used substantively; also with the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim when used substantively; as,—

quid cōnsilī, what purpose?

tantum cibī, so much food;

plūs auctōritātis, more authority;

minus labōris, less labor;

satis pecūniae, enough money;

parum industriae, too little industry.

a. An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be employed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nihil bonī, nothing good.

b. But Adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the noun they limit; as, nihil dulcius, nothing sweeter.

3. Occasionally we find the Genitive of the Whole dependent upon Adverbs of place; as,—

ubi terrārum? ubi gentium? where in the world?

a. By an extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in dependence upon prīdiē and postrīdiē, but only in the phrases prīdiē ejus diēī, on the day before that; postrīdiē ejus diēī, on the day after that.

202. Appositional Genitive. The Genitive sometimes has the force of an appositive; as,—

nōmen rēgis, the name of king;

poena mortis, the penalty of death;

ars scrībendī, the art of writing.

203. Genitive of Quality. The Genitive modified by an Adjective is used to denote quality. This construction presents several varieties. Thus it is used—

1. To denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person or thing; as,—

vir magnae virtūtis, a man of great virtue;

ratiōnēs ejus modī, considerations of that sort.

a. Only a limited number of Adjectives occur in this construction, chiefly magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, along with ejus.

2. To denote measure (breadth, length, etc.); as,—

fossa quīndecim pedum, a trench fifteen feet wide (or deep);

exsilium decem annōrum, an exile of ten years.

3. Equivalent to the Genitive of Quality (though probably of different origin) are the Genitives tantī, quantī, parvī, magnī, minōris, plūris, minimī, plūrimī, maximī. These are used predicatively to denote indefinite value; as,—

nūlla studia tantī sunt, no studies are of so much value;

magnī opera ejus exīstimāta est, his assistance was highly esteemed.

4. By an extension of the notion of value, quantī, tantī, plūris, and minōris are also used with verbs of buying and selling, to denote indefinite price; as,—

quantī aedēs ēmistī, at how high a price did you purchase the house?

5. Any of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality may be used predicatively; as,—

tantae mōlis erat Rōmānam condere gentem, of so great difficulty was it to found the Roman race.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

204. The Genitive is used with many Adjectives to limit the extent of their application. Thus:—

1. With adjectives signifying desire, knowledge, familiarity, memory, participation, power, fullness, and their opposites; as,—

studiōsus discendī, desirous of learning;

perītus bellī, skilled in war;

īnsuētus labōris, unused to toil;

immemor mandātī tuī, unmindful of your commission;

plēna perīculōrum est vīta, life is full of dangers.

a. Some participles used adjectively also take the Genitive; as,—

diligēns vēritātis, fond of truth;

amāns patriae, devoted to one's country.

2. Sometimes with proprius and commūnis; as,—

virī propria est fortitūdō, bravery is characteristic of a man.

memoria est commūnis omnium artium, memory is common to all professions.

a. proprius and commūnis are also construed with the Dative.

3. With similis the Genitive is the commoner construction in Cicero, when the reference is to living objects; as,—

fīlius patris simillimus est, the son is exactly like his father;

meī similis, like me; vestrī similis, like you.

When the reference is to things, both Genitive and Dative occur; as,—

mors somnō (or somnī) similis est, death is like sleep.

4. In the poets and later prose writers the use of the Genitive with Adjectives is extended far beyond earlier limits; as, atrōx animī, fierce of temper; incertus cōnsilī, undecided in purpose.

GENITIVE WITH VERBS.

205. The Genitive is used with the following classes of Verbs:—

Memini, Reminīscor, Oblīvīscor.

206. 1. WHEN REFERRING TO PERSONS—

a. meminī always takes the Genitive of personal or reflexive pronouns; as,—

meī meminerīs, remember me!

nostrī meminit, he remembers us.

With other words denoting persons meminī takes the Accusative, rarely the Genitive; as,—

Sullam meminī, I recall Sulla;

vīvōrum meminī, I remember the living.

b. oblīvīscor regularly takes the Genitive; as,—

Epicūrī nōn licet oblīvīscī, we mustn't forget Epicurus.

2. WHEN REFERRING TO THINGS, meminī, reminīscor, oblīvīscor take sometimes the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative, without difference of meaning; as,—

animus praeteritōrum meminit, the mind remembers the past;

meministīne nōmina, do you remember the names?

reminīscere veteris incommodī, remember the former disaster;

reminīscēns acerbitātem, remembering the bitterness.

a. But neuter pronouns, and adjectives used substantively, regularly stand in the Accusative; as,—

haec meminī, I remember this;

multa reminīscor, I remember many things.

3. The phrase mihi (tibi, etc.) in mentem venit, following the analogy of meminī, takes the Genitive; as,—

mihi patriae veniēbat in mentem, I remembered my country.

Admoneō, Commoneō, Commonefaciō.

207. These verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the person, occasionally take a Genitive of the thing; as,—

tē veteris amīcitiae commonefaciō, I remind you of our old friendship.

a. But more frequently (in Cicero almost invariably) these verbs take dē with the Ablative; as,—

mē admonēs dē sorōre, you remind me of your sister.

b. A neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly stands in the Accusative (§ 178, 1, d); as,—

tē hōc admoneō, I give you this warning.

Verbs of Judicial Action.

208. 1. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Acquitting take the Genitive of the charge; as,—

mē fūrtī accūsat, he accuses me of theft;

Verrem avāritiae coarguit, he convicts Verres of avarice;

impietātis absolūtus est, he was acquitted of blasphemy.

2. Verbs of Condemning take—

a. The Genitive of the charge; as,—

pecūniae pūblicae condemnātus, condemned (on the charge) of embezzlement (lit. public money);

capitis damnātus, condemned on a capital charge (lit. on a charge involving his head).

b. The Ablative of the penalty; as,—

capite damnātus est, he was condemned to death;

mīlle nummīs damnātus est, he was condemned (to pay) a thousand sesterces (lit. by a thousand sesterces, Abl. of Means).

3. Note the phrases:—

vōtī damnātus, vōtī reus, having attained one's prayer (lit. condemned on the score of one's vow);

dē vī, (accused, convicted, etc.) of assault;

inter sīcāriōs, (accused, convicted, etc.) of murder.

Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.

209. 1. The Impersonals pudet, paenitet, miseret, taedet, piget take the Accusative of the person affected, along with the Genitive of the person or thing toward whom the feeling is directed; as,—

pudet mē tuī, I am ashamed of you (lit. it shames me of you);

paenitet mē hūjus factī, I repent of this act;

eum taedet vītae, he is weary of life;

pauperum tē miseret, you pity the poor.

a. Instead of the Genitive of the thing we often find an Infinitive or Neuter Pronoun used as subject of the verb. Thus;—

mē paenitet hōc fēcisse, I repent of having done this;

mē hōc pudet, I am ashamed of this.

2. Misereor and miserēscō also govern the Genitive; as,—

miserēminī sociōrum, pity the allies.

Interest, Rēfert.

210. With interest, it concerns, three points enter into consideration; viz.—

a) the person concerned;

b) the thing about which he is concerned;

c) the extent of his concern.

211. 1. The person concerned is regularly denoted by the Genitive; as,—

patris interest, it concerns the father.

a. But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, meī, tuī, nostrī, vestrī, the Latin uses the Ablative Singular Feminine of the Possessive, viz.: meā, tuā, etc.; as,—

meā interest, it concerns me.

2. The thing about which a person is concerned is denoted—

a) by a Neuter Pronoun as subject; as,—

hōc reī pūblicae interest, this concerns the state.

b) by an Infinitive; as,—

omnium interest valēre, it concerns all to keep well.

c) by an Indirect Question; as,—

meā interest quandō veniās, I am concerned as to when you are coming.

3. The degree of concern is denoted—

a) by the Genitive (cf. § 203, 3): magnī, parvī, etc.; as,—

meā magnī interest, it concerns me greatly.

b) by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maximē, etc.; as,—

cīvium minimē interest, it concerns the citizens very little.

c) by the Neuters, multum, plūs, minus, etc.; as,—

multum vestrā interest, it concerns you much.

4. Rēfert follows interest in its construction, except that it rarely takes the Genitive of the person. Thus:—

meā rēfert, it concerns me;

but rarely illīus rēfert, it concerns him.

Genitive with Other Verbs.

212. 1. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the Genitive; as,—

pecūniae indigēs, you need money.

a. These verbs more commonly take the Ablative (§ 214, 1); indigeō is the only verb which has a preference for the Genitive.

2. Potior, though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes takes the Genitive, almost always so in Sallust; and regularly in the phrase potīrī rērum, to get control of affairs.

3. In poetry some verbs take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek; as,—

dēsine querellārum, cease your complaints;

operum solūtī, freed from their tasks.

THE ABLATIVE.

213. The Latin Ablative unites in itself three cases which were originally distinct both in form and in meaning; viz.—

The Ablative or from-case.

The Instrumental or with-case.

The Locative or where-case.

The uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly fall into Genuine Ablative uses, Instrumental uses, and Locative uses.

GENUINE ABLATIVE USES.

Ablative of Separation.

214. The Ablative of Separation is construed sometimes with, sometimes without, a preposition.

1. The following words regularly take the Ablative without a preposition:—

a) The Verbs of freeing: līberō, solvō, levō;

b) The Verbs of depriving: prīvō, spoliō, exuō, fraudō, nūdō;

c) The Verbs of lacking: egeō, careō, vacō;

d) The corresponding Adjectives, līber, inānis, vacuus, nūdus,

and some others of similar meaning.

Thus:—

cūrīs līberātus, freed from cares;

Caesar hostēs armīs exuit, Caesar stripped the enemy of their arms;

caret sēnsū commūnī, he lacks common sense;

auxiliō eget, he needs help;

bonōrum vīta vacua est metū, the life of the good is free from fear.

NOTE 1.—Yet Adjectives and līberō may take the preposition ab,—regularly so with the Ablative of persons; as,—

urbem ā tyrannō līberārunt, they freed the city from the tyrant.

NOTE 2.—Indigeō usually takes the Genitive. See § 212, 1, a.

2. Of Verbs signifying to keep from, to remove, to withdraw, some take the preposition, others omit it. The same Verb often admits both constructions. Examples:—

abstinēre cibō, to abstain from food;

hostēs fīnibus prohibuērunt, they kept the enemy from their borders;

praedōnēs ab īnsulā prohibuit, he kept the pirates from the island.

3. Other Verbs of separation usually take the Ablative with a Prepositon, particularly compounds of dis- and sē-; as,—

dissentiō ā tē, I dissent from you;

sēcernantur ā nōbīs, let them be separated from us.

4. The Preposition is freely omitted in poetry.

Ablative of Source.

215. The Ablative of Source is used with the participles nātus and ortus (in poetry also with ēditus, satus, and some others), to designate parentage or station; as,—

Jove nātus, son of Jupiter;

summō locō nātus, high-born (lit. born from a very high place);

nōbilī genere ortus, born of a noble family.

1. Pronouns regularly (nouns rarely) take ex; as,

ex mē nātus, sprung from me.

2. To denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriundus (with or without ab), is used; as,—

ab Ulixe oriundus, descended from Ulysses.

Ablative of Agent.

216. The Ablative accompanied by ā (ab) is used with passive verbs to denote the personal agent; as,—

ā Caesare accūsātus est, he was arraigned by Caesar.

1. Collective nouns referring to persons, and abstract nouns when personified, may be construed as the personal agent. Thus:—

hostēs ā fortūnā dēserēbantur, the enemy were deserted by Fortune;

ā multitūdine hostium mōntēs tenēbantur, the mountains were held by a multitude of the enemy.

2. Names of animals sometimes admit the same construction. Thus:—

ā canibus laniātus est, he was torn to pieces by dogs.

Ablative of Comparison.

217. 1. The Ablative is often used with Comparatives in the sense of than; as,—

melle dulcior, sweeter than honey;

patria mihi vītā cārior est, my country is dearer to me than life.

2. This construction, as a rule, occurs only as a substitute for quam (than) with the Nominative or Accusative. In other cases quam must be used; as,—

tuī studiōsior sum quam illīus, I am fonder of you than of him.

—Studiōsior illō would have meant, I am fonder of you than he is.

Plūs, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equivalents of plūs quam, minus quam, etc. Thus:—

amplius vīgintī urbēs incenduntur, more than twenty cities are fired;

minus quīnque mīlia prōcessit, he advanced less than five miles.

3. Note the use of opīniōne with Comparatives; as,—

opīniōne celerius venit, he comes more quickly than expected (lit. than opinion).

INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Means.

218. The Ablative is used to denote means or instrument; as,—

Alexander sagittā vulnerātus est, Alexander was wounded by an arrow.

There are the following special varieties of this Ablative:—

1. Ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds take the Ablative; as,—

dīvitiīs ūtitur, he uses his wealth (lit. he benefits himself by his wealth);

vītā fruitur, he enjoys life (lit. he enjoys himself by life);

mūnere fungor, I perform my duty (lit. I busy myself with duty);

carne vescuntur, they eat flesh (lit. feed themselves by means of);

castrīs potītus est, he got possession of the camp (lit. made himself powerful by the camp).

a.. Potior sometimes governs the Genitive. See § 212, 2.

2. With opus est (rarely ūsus est), there is need; as,—

duce nōbīs opus est, we need a leader.

a. A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with opus as predicate. Thus:—

hōc mihi opus est, this is necessary for me.

b. An ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject. Thus dux nōbīs opus est is a rare form of expression.

c. Note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus est; as,—

opus est properātō, there is need of haste.

3. With nītor, innīxus, and frētus; as,—

nītitur hastā, he rests on a spear (lit. supports himself by a spear);

frētus virtūte, relying on virtue (lit. supported by virtue).

4. With continērī, cōnsistere, cōnstāre, consist of; as,—

nervīs et ossibus continentur, they consist of sinews and bones (lit. they are held together by sinews and bones);

mortālī cōnsistit corpore mundus, the world consists of mortal substance (lit. holds together by means of, etc.).

6. In expressions of the following type:—

quid hōc homine faciās, what can you do with this man?

quid meā Tulliolā fīet, what will become of my dear Tullia? (lit. what will be done with my dear Tullia?)

7. In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary English idiom:—

proeliō contendere, vincere, to contend, conquer in battle;

proeliō lacessere, to provoke to battle;

currū vehī, to ride in a chariot;

pedibus īre, to go on foot;

castrīs sē tenēre, to keep in camp.

8. With Verbs of filling and Adjectives of plenty; as,—

fossās virgultīs complērunt, they filled the trenches with brush.

a. But plēnus more commonly takes the Genitive. See § 204, 1.

9. Under 'Means' belongs also the Ablative of the Way by Which; as,—

vīnum Tiberī dēvectum, wine brought down (by) the Tiber.

10. The means may be a person as well as a thing. Thus:—

mīlitibus ā lacū Lemannō ad montem Jūram mūrum perdūcit, with (i.e. by means of) his troops he runs a wall from Lake Geneva to Mt. Jura.

Ablative of Cause.

219. The Ablative is used to denote cause; as,—

multa glōriae cupiditāte fēcit, he did many things on account of his love of glory.

1. So especially with verbs denoting mental states; as, dēlector, gāudeō, laetor, glōrior, fīdō, cōnfīdō. Also with contentus; as,—

fortūnā amīcī gaudeō, I rejoice at the fortune of my friend (i.e. on account of it);

victōriā suā glōriantur, they exult over their victory;

nātūrā locī cōnfīdēbant, they trusted in the character of their country (lit. were confident on account of the character).

a. fīdō and cōnfīdō always take the Dative of the person (§ 187, II, a); sometimes the Dative of the thing.

2. As Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives as jussū, by order of, injussū, without the order, rogātū, etc.

Ablative of Manner.

220. The Ablative with cum is used to denote manner; as,—

cum gravitāte loquitur, he speaks with dignity.

1. The preposition may be absent when the Ablative is modified by an adjective; as,—

magnā gravitāte loquitur, he speaks with great dignity.

2. The preposition is regularly absent in the expressions jūre, injūriā, jocō, vī, fraude, voluntāte, fūrtō, silentiō.

3. A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that in accordance with which or in pursuance of which anything is or is done. It is generally used without a preposition. Thus:—

meā sententiā, according to my opinion;

suīs mōribus, in accordance with their custom;

suā sponte, voluntarily, of his (their) own accord;

eā condiciōne, on these terms.

Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.

221. The Ablative is often used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action or an event; as,—

bonīs auspiciīs, under good auspices;

nūlla est altercātiō clāmōribus umquam habita majōribus, no debate was ever held under circumstances of greater applause;

exstinguitur ingentī lūctū prōvinciae, he dies under circumstances of great grief on the part of the province;

longō intervāllō sequitur, he follows at a great distance.

Ablative of Accompaniment.

222. The Ablative with cum is used with verbs of motion to denote accompaniment; as,—

cum comitibus profectus est, he set out with his attendants;

cum febrī domum rediit, he returned home with a fever.

1. In military expressions the Ablative may stand without cum when modified by any adjective except a numeral; as,—

omnibus cōpiīs, ingentī exercitū, magnā manū; but usually cum exercitū, cum duābus legiōnibus.

Ablative of Association.

222A. The Ablative is often used with verbs of joining, mixing, clinging, exchanging; also with assuēscō, cōnsuēscō, assuēfaciō, and some others to denote association; as,—

improbitās scelere jūncta, badness joined with crime;

āēr calōre admixtus, air mixed with heat;

assuētus labōre, accustomed to (lit. familiarized with) toil;

pācem bellō permūtant, they change peace for (lit. with) war.

Ablative of Degree of Difference.

223. The Ablative is used with comparatives and words involving comparison (as post, ante, īnfrā, suprā) to denote the degree of difference; as,—

dimidiō minor, smaller by a half;

tribus pedibus altior, three feet higher;

paulō post, a little afterwards;

quō plurā habēmus, eō cupimus ampliōra, the more we have, the more we want.

Ablative of Quality.

224. The Ablative, modified by an adjective, is used to denote quality; as,—

puella eximiā fōrmā, a girl of exceptional beauty;

vir singulārī industriā, a man of singular industry.

1. The Ablative of Quality may also be used predicatively; as,—

est magnā prūdentiā, he is (a man) of great wisdom;

bonō animā sunt, they are of good courage.

2. In place of the Adjective we sometimes find a limiting Genitive; as,—

sunt speciē et colōre taurī, they are of the appearance and color of a bull,

3. In poetry the Ablative of Quality sometimes denotes material; as,—

scopulīs pendentībus antrum, a cave of arching rocks.

Ablative of Price.

225. With verbs of buying and selling, price is designated by the Ablative; as—

servum quīnque minīs ēmit, he bought the slave for five minae.

1. The Ablatives magnō, plūrimō, parvō, minimō (by omission of pretiō) are used to denote indefinite price; as,—

aedēs magnō vēndidīt, he sold the house for a high price.

2. For the Genitive of Indefinite Price, see § 203, 4.

Ablative of Specification.

226. The Ablative of Specification is used to denote that in respect to which something is or is done; as,—

Helvētiī omnibus Gallīs virtūte praestābant, the Helvetians surpassed all the Gauls in valor;

pede claudus, lame in his foot.

1. Note the phrases:—

major nātū, older (lit. greater as to age);

minor nātū, younger.

2. Here belongs the use of the Ablative with dignus, worthy, indignus, unworthy, and dignor, deem worthy of; as,—

dignī honōre, worthy of honor (i.e. in point of honor);

fidē indignī, unworthy of confidence;

mē dignor honōre, I deem myself worthy of honor.

Ablative Absolute.

227. The Ablative Absolute is grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence. In its commonest form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a participle; as,—

urbe captā, Aenēās fūgit, when the city had been captured, Aeneas fled (lit. the city having been captured).

1. Instead of a participle we often find an adjective or noun; as,—

vīvō Caesare rēs pūblica salva erat, while Caesar was alive the state was safe (lit. Caesar being alive);

Tarquiniō rēge, Pythagorās in Italiam vēnit, in the reign of Tarquin Pythagoras came into Italy (lit. Tarquin being king);

Cn. Pompejō, M. Crassō cōnsulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Crassus (lit. P. and C. being consuls).

2. The Ablative Absolute is generally used in Latin where in English we employ subordinate clauses. Thus the Ablative Absolute may correspond to a clause denoting—

a) Time, as in the foregoing examples.

b) Condition; as,—

omnēs virtūtēs jacent, voluptāte dominante, all virtues lie prostrate, if pleasure is master.

c) Opposition; as,—

perditīs omnibus rēbus, virtūs sē sustentāre potest, though everything else is lost, yet Virtue can maintain herself.

d) Cause; as,—

nūllō adversante rēgnum obtinuit, since no one opposed him, he secured the throne.

e) Attendant circumstance; as,—

passīs palmīs pācem petīvērunt, with hands outstretched, they sued for peace.

3. An Infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the Ablative Absolute construction, especially in Livy and later writers; as,—

audītō eum fūgisse, when it was heard that he had fled.

4. A noun or pronoun stands in the Ablative Absolute construction only when it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause in which it stands. Exceptions to this principle are extremely rare.

LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Place.

A. Place where.