Inflection and nouns

Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, different in the two languages, but following definite laws in each. Hence both preserve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here.

The most important correspondences in consonants between Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following table:— The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates ( bh , dh , gh ). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being, for bh , Latin f , b (English has b , v , or f ); for dh , Latin f , b , d (English has d ); for gh , Latin h , g (English has y , g ). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change, while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed considerably in accordance with what has been called Grimm's Law for the shifting of mutes.

Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as, niv- (for † sniv- ), Eng. snow; ānser (for † hānser ), Eng. goose. From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be carefully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French. Thus faciō is kindred with Eng. do , but from the Latin participle ( factum ) of this verb comes Eng. fact , and from the French descendant ( fait ) of factum comes Eng. feat.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns, Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.

A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea: as, Caesar; Rōma, Rome; domus, a house; virtūs, virtue.

Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns; other nouns are called Common. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or idea: as, audācia , boldness; senectūs , old age. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like: as, turba , crowd; exercitus , army.

An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality: as, bonus, good; fortis, brave, strong. A Participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as,— Caesar cōnsul creātus , Cæsar having been elected consul. Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any common name can still be so used. Thus , King William distinguishes this William from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name king.

A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or idea without either naming or describing it: as, is, he; quī, who; nōs, we.

Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.

A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something: as, sum, I am; amat, he loves. In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts anything, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.

An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion or attribute: as, splendidē mendāx, gloriously false; hodiē nātus est, he was born to-day. These same functions are often performed by cases (see §§ 214 - 217 ) of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.

A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence: as, per agrōs it, he goes over the fields; ē plūribus ūnum, one out of many. Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 219 ). The relations expressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings.

A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words, without affecting their grammatical relations: as, et, and; sed, but. Some adverbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbial Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi , where; dōnec , until.

Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed as parts of speech. Thus,—heus, halloo! ō, oh! Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words: as, vae victīs , woe to the conquered (alas for the conquered)!

INFLECTION

Latin is an inflected language.

Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its grammatical relations.

Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the beginning, but oftener in its termination:— vōx, a voice; vōcis, of a voice; vocō, I call; vocat, he calls; vocet, let him call; vocāvit, he has called; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched.

Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English.

Thus, in vocat , the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vōcis , to the preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood.

Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in English:— frangit, he breaks or is breaking; frēgit, he broke or has broken; mordet, he bites; momordit, he bit. The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings; and the changes here referred to are strictly changes of stem , but have become a part of the system of inflections.

The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles to denote gender, number, and case is called Declension, and these parts of speech are said to be declined.

The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be conjugated. Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote).

Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are not inflected and are called Particles. The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num , -ne , an ( interrogative ), nōn , nē ( negative ), sī ( conditional ), etc., which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sentence.

Root, Stem, and Base

The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the Stem.

The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, except in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be used without some termination to express them. Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege ).

Thus the stem vōc- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes vōx, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an action; with -is it becomes vōcis , and signifies of a voice. The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a comparison with other forms is necessary to determine it.

A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a word into its component parts.

Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kindred languages. For example, the root STA is found in the Sanskrit , Latin sistere and stāre , German fteben , and English stand.

Thus the root of the stem vōc- is voc, which does not mean to call, or I call, or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations. With ā- it becomes vocā-, the stem of vocāre (to call); with āv- it is the stem of vocāvit (he called); with āto- it becomes the stem of vocātus (called); with ātiōn- it becomes the stem of vocātiōnis (of a calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vōx , vōc-is (a voice: that by which we call). This stem vōc-, with -ālis added, means belonging to a voice; with -ŭla, a little voice. In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning.

Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a separate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used carlier.

The Stem may be the same as the root: as in duc-is, of a leader, fer-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the root—

By changing or lengthening its vowel: as in scob-s, sawdust (SCAB, shave); rēg-is, of a king (REG, direct); vōc-is, of a voice (VOC, call).

By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root): as in fugā-, stem of fuga, flight (FUG + ā-); regi-s, you rule (REG + stem-ending e/o-); sini-t, he allows (SI + ne /o-). These suffixes are Indo-European stem-endings.

By two or more of these methods: as in dūci-t, he leads (DUC + stemending e/o-).

By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language. (See §§ 227 ff.)

The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in inflection: as, serv- in servus; mēns- in mēnsa; īgn- in īgnis.

The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant stems of nouns (as, rēg- in rēg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of mēnsa , mēnsā-; that of īgnis , īgni-.

Inflectional terminations are variously modified by combination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see §§ 36, 164) developed.

GENDER

The Genders distinguished in Latin are three: Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.

The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.

Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted: as, puer (M.), boy; puella (F.), girl; rēx (M.), king; rēgīna (F.), queen. Many nouns have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish sex : as, cervus , cerva , stag , doe; cliēns , clienta , client; victor , victrīx , conqueror.

Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes and peoples are masculine: as, Rōmānī, the Romans; Persae, the Persians. A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class: as, mancipium um your slave (your chattel).

Many petenames of girls and boys are neuter in form: as, Paegnium , Glycerium . Names or classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as, exercitus (M.), aciēs (F.), and agmen (N.), army; operae (F. plur.), workmen; cōpiae (F. plur.), troops senātus (M.), senate; cohors (F.), cohort; concilium (N.), council.

Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined with the noun: as, lapis māgnus (M.), a great stone; manus mea (F.), my hand.

General Rules of Gender

Names of Male beings, and of Rivers, Winds, Months, and Mountains, are masculine:— pater, father; Iūlius, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south wind; Iānuārius, January; Apennīnus, the Apennines.

Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mēnsis , month , being understood: as, Iānuārius , January.

A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as, Allia ), with the Greek names Lēthē and Styx, are feminine; others are variable or uncertain.

Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender of their termination: as, Alpēs (F.), the Alps; Sōracte (N.).

Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine:— māter, mother; Iūlia, Julia; Rōma, Rome; Ītalia, Italy; rosa, rose; pīnus, pine; sapphīrus, sapphire; anas, duck; vēritās, truth.

Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine: as, Sulmō , Gabiī (plur.); or neuter, as, Tarentum , Illyricum .

A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termination: as, centaurēum (N.), centaury; acanthus (M.), bearsfoot; opalus (M.), opal. The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the terminations, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their gēns or house (see § 108 . b ).

Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter:— fās, right; nihil, nothing; gummī, gum; scīre tuum, your knowledge (to know); trīste valē, a sad farewell; hōc ipsum diū, this very “long.”

Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender: as, exsul, exile; bōs, ox or cow; parēns, parent. Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex. These are called epicene. Thus lepus , hare , is always masculine, and vulpēs , fox , is always feminine.

NUMBER AND CASE

Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative.

The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence.

The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive, or by the Objective with the preposition of.

The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 274). It may usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for.

The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (§ 274). It is used also with many of the prepositions.

The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from, by, with, in, or at. It is often used with prepositions.

The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.

All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as objectcases; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases ( cāsūs oblīquī ).

In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another case (the Locative), denoting the place where: as, Rōmae, at Rome; rūrī, in the country. Still another case , the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (§ 215 . 4).

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to different forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the language have given rise to the several declensions. Most of the case-endings, as given in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem.

Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed with them; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see § 109 ff.).

Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending of the Genitive Singular.

The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting the case-ending; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel.

The following are General Rules of Declension:—

The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have -e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs from the nominative.

In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in -ă.

The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m; the Accusative plural in -s.

In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the Dative singular ends in -ī.

The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.

The Genitive plural always ends in -um.

Final -i, -o, -u of inflection are always long; final -a is short, except in the Ablative singular of the first declension; final -e is long in the first and fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in plural cases.

Case-endings of the Five Declensions

The regular Case-endings of the several declensions are the following:— For ancient, rare, and Greek forms (which are here omitted), see under the several declensions.

FIRST DECLENSION (ā-STEMS)

The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in ā-. The Nominative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in Greek nouns.

Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined:—

The Latin has no article; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or simply star.

Gender in the First Declension

Nouns of the first declension are Feminine.

Exceptions: Nouns masculine from their signification: as, nauta, sailor. So a few family or personal names: as, Mūrēna , Dolābella , Scaevola Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning little left hand ; but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname ), it became masculine. Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun. ; also, Hadria, the Adriatic.

Case-Forms in the First Declension

a. The genitive singular anciently ended in -āī (dissyllabic), which is occasionally found: as, aulāī. The same ending sometimes occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong.

An old genitive in -ās is preserved in the word familiās , often used in the combinations pater (māter, fīlius, fīlia) familiās, father, etc., of a family (plur. patrēs familiās or familiārum).

The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae; for the plural in -īs (cf. p. 34, footnote): as, Rōmae, at Rome; Athēnīs, at Athens.

The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -ārum, especially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of Æneas, and in compounds with -cŏla and -gĕna, signifying dwelling and descent: as, caelicolum, celestials; Trōiugenum, sons of Troy; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and drachma.

The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, fīlia, daughter, end in an older form -ābus (deābus, fīliābus) to distinguish them from the corresponding cases of deus, god, and fīlius, son (deīs, fīliīs). So rarely with other words, as, līberta, freed-woman; mūla, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents, etc.), the form in -īs is preferred in all but dea and fīlia . The old ending of the ablative singular ( -ād ) is sometimes retained in early Latin: as, praidād , booty (later, praedā ). In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -īs is sometimes found, and -iīs (as in taeniīs ) is occasionally contracted to -īs ( taenīs ); so regularly in words in -âia (as, Bâīs from Bâiae ).

Greek Nouns of the First Declension

Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court); but others retain traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular.

There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being names of plants or arts: as, crambē, cabbage; mūsicē, music. Most have also regular Latin forms: as, comēta; but the nominative sometimes has the a long.

Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it occurs, is regular: as, comētae, -ārum, etc.

Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third declensions: as, Boōtae (genitive of Boōtēs, -is), Thūcȳdidās (accusative plural of Thūcȳdidēs , -is). See § 52. a and § 81. The Greek accusative Scīpiadam , from Scīpiadēs , descendant of the Scipios , is found in Horace.

SECOND DECLENSION (o-STEMS)

The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in ŏ-: as, viro- (stem of vir, man), servo- (stem of servus or servos, slave), bello- (stem of bellum, war).

The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel ŏ being weakened to ŭ (see §§ 6. a, 46. N.1).

In most nouns whose stem ends in rŏ- the s is not added in the Nominative, but o is lost, and e intrudes before r, Compare the English chamber from French chambre. if not already present: as, ager , stem agrŏ- Compare Greek a)gro/s , which shows the original o of the stem. ; cf. puer , stem puero-.

Exceptions: erus , hesperus, iūniperus , mōrus , numerus , taurus , umerus , uterus, vīrus, and many Greek nouns.

The stem-vowel ŏ has a variant form ĕ, By so-called Ablaut (see § 17 . a ). which is preserved in the Latin vocative singular of nouns in -us: as, servĕ, vocative of servus, slave. In composition this ĕ appears as ĭ . Thus,— belli-ger , warlike (from bell- o/e- , stem of bellum , war ).

Nouns of the Second Declension in -us (-os) and -um (-om) are thus declined:—

The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were -os , -om , and these were always retained after u and v up to the end of the Republic. The terminations s and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions: as, Cornēlio for Cornēlios , Cornēliom . Stems in quo- , like equo- , change qu to c before u . Thus, ecus (earlier equos ), equī , equō , ecum (earlier equom ), eque . Modern editions disregard this principle.

Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are thus declined:—

When e belongs to the stem, as in puer , it is retained throughout; other, wise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager .

Gender in the Second Declension

Nouns ending in -us (-os), -er, -ir, are Masculine; those ending in -um (-on) are Neuter.

Exceptions: Names of countries and towns in -us (-os） are Feminine: as, Aegyptus , Corinthus . Also many names of plants and gems, with the following: alvus, belly; carbasus, linen (pl. carbasa, sails, N.); colus, distaff; humus, ground: vannus, winnowing-shovel.

Many Greek nouns retain their original gender: as, arctus (F.), the Polar Bear; methodus (F.), method.

The following in -us are Neuter; their accusative (as with all neuters) is the same as the nominative: pelagus, sea; vīrus, poison; vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd. They are not found in the plural, except pelagus , which has a rare nominative and accusative plural pelagē . The nominative plural neuter cētē , sea monsters , occurs; the nominative singular cētus occurs in Vitruvius .

Case-Forms in the Second Declension

a. The Locative form of this declension ends for the singular in -ī: as, humī, on the ground; Corinthī, at Corinth; for the plural, in -īs: as, Philippīs, at Philippi (cf. p. 34, footnote).

The genitive of nouns in -ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan Age, in a single -ī: as, fīlī, of a son; Pompêī, of Pompey ( Pompêius ); but the accent of the nominative is retained: as, ingĕ'nī, of genius. The genitive in -iī occurs once in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probably unknown to Cicero.

Proper names in -ius have -ī in the vocative, retaining the accent of the nominative: as, Vergĭ'lī. So also, fīlius, son; genius, divine guardian: as, audī , mī fīlī, hear, my son.

Adjectives in -ĭus form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occasionally used as nouns: as, Lacedaemonie, O Spartan. Greek names in -īus have the vocative -īe: as, Lyrcīus , vocative Lyrcīe .

The genitive plural often has -um or (after v ) -om (cf. § 6. a) instead of -ōrum, especially in the poets: as, deum , superum , dīvom, of the gods; virum, of men. Also in compounds of vir , and in many words of money, measure, and weight: as, Sēvirum, of the Seviri; nummum, of coins; iūgerum, of acres.

The original ending of the ablative singular (-ōd) is sometimes found in early Latin: as, Gnaivōd (later, Gnaeō ), Cneius.

Proper names in -âius, -êius, -ôius (as, Aurunculêius, Bôī), are declined like Pompêius .

Deus (M.), god, is thus declined:—

The vocative singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said to have been dee ; deus (like the nominative) occurs in the Vulgate. For the genitive plural , dīvum or dīvom (from dīvus , divine ) is often used.

The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem, retain the e throughout and are declined like puer (§ 47):—

Also, the adjective līber, free, of which līberī, children, is the plural (§ 111. a), and compounds in -fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-): as, lūcifer, morning star; armiger, squire.

An old nominative socerus occurs. So vocative puere, boy, as if from †puerus (regularly puer ).

Vir, man, has genitive virī; the adjective satur, sated, has saturī; vesper, evening, has ablative vespere (locative vesperī, in the evening).

Mulciber, Vulcan, has -berī and -brī in the genitive. The barbaric names Hibēr and Celtibēr retain ē throughout.

The following, not having e in the stem, insert it in the nominative singular and are declined like ager (§ 47):—

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension

Greek nouns of the Second Declension end in -os, -ōs, masculine or feminine, and in -on neuter.

They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular:—

Many names in -ēs belonging to the third declension have also a genitive in -ī: as, Thūcȳdidēs , Thūcȳdidī (compare § 44. b).

Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us: as, Teucer or Teucrus . The name Panthūs has the vocative Panthū (§ 81. 3).

The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek termination -ōn: as, Geōrgicōn, of the Georgics.

The termination -oe (for Greek -oi) is sometimes found in the nominative plural: as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).

Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus ) have forms of the second and third declensions (see § 82).

THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND i-STEMS)

Nouns of the Third Declension end in a, e, ī, ō, y, c, l, n, r, s, t, x.

Stems of the Third Declension are classed as follows:—

I. Consonant Stems a. Mute stems. b. Liquid and Nasal stems.

II. I-Stems a. Pure i-stems. b. Mixed i-stems.

The Nominative is always derived from the stem.

The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modi fications of the stem, of which the most important are—

Combination of final consonants: as of c (or g ) and s to form x; dux , ducis , stem duc-; rēx , rēgis , stem rēg-.

Omission of a final consonant: as of a final nasal; leō , leōnis , stem leōn-; ōrātiō , ōrātiōnis , stem ōrātiōn-.

Omission of a final vowel: as of final i; calcar , calcāris , stem calcāri-.

Change of vowel in the final syllable : as of a toe; prīnceps (for -caps), prīncipis , stem prīncip- (for -cap-).

CONSONANT STEMS

Mute Stems

Masculine and Feminine Nouns with mute stems form the Nominative by adding s to the stem.

A labial ( p ) is retained before s: as, prīncep-s .

A lingual (t, d) is dropped before s: as, mīles (stem mīlit-), cūstōs (stem cūstōd-).

A palatal (c, g) unites with s to form x: as, dux (for † duc-s ), rēx (for † rēg-s ).

In dissyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nominative and i in the stem: as, prīnceps , stem prīncip- (for -cap-).

Nouns of this class are declined as follows:

In like manner are declined— ariēs, -etis (M.), ram; comes, -itis (c.), companion; lapis , -idis (M.), stone; iūdex , -icis (M.), judge; cornīx , -īcis (F.), raven, and many other nouns.

Most mute stems are Masculine or Feminine. Those that are neuter have for the Nominative the simple stem. But,—

Lingual Stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final mute: as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So also stems in ăt- from the Greek: as, poēma (stem poēmat-).

The stem capit- shows u in the nominative (caput for †capot).

Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

The following irregularities require notice:—

Greek neuters with nominative singular in -a (as poēma ) frequently end in -īs in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in -ōrum in the genitive plural; as, poēmatīs (for poēmatibus ), poēmatōrum (for poēmatum ).

A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the genitive plural (like cor ). See § 103. g. 2.

Liquid and Nasal Stems (l, n, r）

In Masculine and Feminine nouns with liquid and nasal stems the Nominative is the same as the stem.

Exceptions are the following:—

Stems in ōn- drop n in the nominative: as in legiō , stem legiōn-.

Stems in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original ō in the nominative: as in virgō , stem virgin-. These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and in part upon the influence of analogy.

Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have e instead ofi in the nominative: as in cornicen, stem cornicin-. These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and in part upon the influence of analogy.

Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, pater , stem patr-. These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weakened to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and vocative singular show the e . But cf. Māspitris and Māspiteris ( Mā [ r ] s-piter ), quoted by Priscian as old forms.

Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

In Neuter nouns with liquid or nasal stems the Nominative is the same as the stem.

Exceptions:

Stems in in- havee instead of i in the nominative: as in nōmen , stem nōmin-.

Most stems in er- and or- have -us in the nominative: as,genus, stem gener-. These were originally s- stems (cf. § 15 . 4).

Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

So also are declined opus , -eris, work; pīgnus, -eris or -oris, pledge, etc. The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genitive plural in -ium , and are to be classed with the i-stems: imber , linter , ūter , venter ; glīs , mās , mūs , [† rēn ]; also vīrēs (plural of vīs : see § 79 ).

i-STEMS

Nouns of this class include—

Pure i-Stems: Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic I.e. having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singular. nouns in -is and four in -er.

Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.

Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stems, the plural like i-stems.

Pure i-Stems

Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -is form the Nominative singular by adding s to the stem.

Four stems in bri- and tri- do not add s to form the nominative, but drop i and insert e before r. These are imber , linter, ūter , venter.

Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

In Neuters the Nominative is the same as the stem, with final i changed to e: as, mare, stem mari-. But most nouns Such are animal , bacchānal , bidental , capital , cervīcal , cubital , lupercal , minūtal , puteal , quadrantal , toral , tribūnal , vectīgal ; calcar , cochlear , exemplar , lacūnar , laquear , tūcar , lūminar , lupānar , palear , pulvīnar , torcular . Cf. the plurals dentālia , frontālia , genuālia , spōnsālia ; altāria , plantāria , speculāria , tālāria ; also many names of festivals , as, Sāturnālia . in which the i of the stem is preceded by āl or ār lose the final vowel and shorten the preceding ā: as, animăl, stem animāli-. Exceptions are augurāle , collāre , fōcāle , nāvāle , penetrāle , rāmāle , scūtāle , tībiāle ; alveāre , capillāre . cochleāre .

Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have -ī in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural: as, animal, animālī , -ia, -ium.

Nouns of this class are declined as follows:—

Mixed i-Stems

Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their i-forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have assumed i- forms in the plural. It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes.

Mixed i-stems have -em in the accusative and -e in the ablative singular, -ium in the genitive There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having -ium , some -um , and some both. and -īs or -ēs in the accusative plural. They include the following:—

Nouns in -ēs, gen. -is. These are acīnacēs , aedēs , alcēs , caedēs , cautēs , clādēs , compāgēs , contāgēs , famēs , fēlēs , fidēs (plural), indolēs , lābēs , luēs , mēlēs , mōlēs , nūbēs , palumbēs , prōlēs , prōpāgēs , pūbēs , sēdēs , saepēs , sordēs , strāgēs , struēs , subolēs , tābēs , torquēs , tudēs , vātēs , vehēs , veprēs , verrēs , vulpēs ; aedēs has also nominative aedis .

Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars , pōns, arx .

Polysyllables in -ns or -rs: as, cliēns , cohors .

Nouns in -tās, genitive -tātis (genitive plural usually -um） There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having -ium , some -um , and some both. : as, cīvitās .

Penātēs, optimātēs , and nouns denoting birth or abode (patrials) in -ās, -īs, plural -ātēs, -ītēs: as, Arpīnās , plural Arpīnātēs;Quirīs, plural Quirītēs .

The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel: dōs, fraus , glīs, līs , mās,mūs, nix, nox , strix, vīs .

Nouns of this class are thus declined:—

Summary of i-Stems

The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disappeared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them. The nominative plural (-īs) An old, though not the original ending (see p. 32. footnote 2). was most thoroughly lost, next the accusative singular (-im), next the ablative (-ī); while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, -īs) were retained in almost all.

I-stems show the i of the stem in the following forms:—

They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 78.

All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.

The accusative plural (M. or F.) is regularly -īs.

The accusative singular (M. or F.) of a few ends in -im (§ 75).

The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and feminines, ends in -ī (see § 76).

The regular case-ending of the Accusative singular of i- stems (M. or F.) would be -im: as, sitis , sitim (cf. stella , -am; servus , -um); but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the consonant declension).

The accusative in -im is found exclusively—

In Greek nouns and in names of rivers.

In būris , cucumis , rāvis , sitis , tussis , vīs .

In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim; and in amussim.

The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris , puppis , restis , turris , secūris , sēmentis , and rarely in many other words.

The regular form of the Ablative singular of i-stems would be -ī: as, sitis , sitī; but in most nouns this is changed to -e.

The ablative in -ī is found exclusively—

In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 75); also secūris .

In the following adjectives used as nouns: aequālis , annālis , aquālis , cōnsulāris , gentīlis , molāris , prīmipīlāris , tribūlis .

In neuters in -e, -al, -ar: except baccar , iubar , rēte , and sometimes mare. The ablative in -ī is found sometimes—

In avis , clāvis , febris , fīnis, īgnis , Always in the formula aquā et īgnī interdīcī (§ 401 ). imber , lūx, nāvis , ovis , pelvis, puppis , sēmentis , strigilis , turris , and occasionally in other words.

In the following adjectives used as nouns: affīnis , bipennis , canālis , familiāris , nātālis , rīvālis , sapiēns, tridēns , trirēmis , vōcālis .

The ablative of famēs is always famē （§ 105 . e ). The defective māne has sometimes mānī (§ 103 . b. N.) as ablative. Most names of towns in -e (as, Praeneste , Tergeste ） and Sōracte , a mountain, have the ablative in -e . Caere has Caerēte . Canis and iuvenis have cane , iuvene

The regular Nominative plural of i-stems is -ēs, The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -ĕs (preserved in Greek in consonant stems, as o)/rtuc, o)/rtug-es ), contracts with a stem-vowel and gives -ēs in the Latin i-declension (cf, the Greek plural o)/eis ). This -ēs was extended to consonant stems in Latin. but -īs is occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural -īs is common, but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both cases is -eis (diphthong).

The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural:

Always, canis , iuvenis , Canis and iuvenis are really n- stems ambāgēs , mare (once only, otherwise wanting), volucris; regularly, sēdēs , vātēs .

Sometimes, apis , caedēs , clādēs , mēnsis , struēs , subolēs .

Very rarely,—patrials in -ās, -ātis; -īs, -ītis; as, Arpīnās , Arpīnātum , Samnīs,Samnītum.

Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension

In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nominative or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined:—

Two vowel-stems in ū-, grū- and sū-, which follow the third declension, add s in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems: grūs has also a nominative gruis; sūs has both suibus and sū˘bus in the dative and ablative plural, grūs has only gruibus .

In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes ō in the nominative (bōs, bŏvis).

In nāv- (nau-) an i is added ( nāvis , -is), and it is declined like turris (§ 67).

In Iŏv- (= *zeu/s) the diphthong ( ou ) becomes ū in Iū-piter (for -păter), genitive Iŏvis , etc.; but the form Iuppiter is preferred.

In iter , itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris ( iecoris ) (N.), supellēx , supellēctilis (F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem; in senex , senis , from a longer; so that these words show a combination of forms from two distinct stems.

In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive plural.

Vās (N.), vāsis , keeps s throughout; plural vāsa , vāsōrum . A dative plural vāsibus also occurs. There is a rare singular vāsum .

The Locative Case

The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends in the singular in -ī or -ē, in the plural in -ibus: as, rūrī, in the country; Carthāginī or Carthāgine, at Carthage; Trallibus, at Tralles. The Indo-European locative singular ended in -ĭ , which became -ĕ in Latin. Thus the Latin ablative in -e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative in -ī (from -īd) was an analogical formation (cf. -ā from -ād , -ō from -ōd ), properly belonging to i- stems. With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was ascribed to forms in -ī (as, Carthāginī ), partly on the analogy of the real locative of o-stems (as, Corinthī , § 49 . a ); but forms in -ĕ also survived in this use. The plural -bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative function. Cf. Philippīs (§ 49 . a ), in which the ending -īs is, historically considered, either locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athēnīs (§ 43 . c ), in which the ending is formed on the analogy of o-stems.

Greek Nouns of the Third Declension

Many nouns originally Greek—mostly proper names— retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially—

Genitive singular in -os, as, tigridos .

Accusative singular in -a, as, aethera .

Vocative singular like the stem, as, Periclē , Orpheu, Atlā.

Nominative plural in -ĕs, as, hērōĕs.

Accusative plural in -ăs, as, hērōăs .

Some of these forms are seen in the following examples:—

Other peculiarities are the following:—

Delphīnus, -ī (M.), has also the form delphīn, -īnis; Salamīs, -is (F.) has acc. Salamīna .

Most stems in ĭd- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems: as tigris , gen. -ĭdis (-ĭdos) or -is; acc. -ĭdem (-ĭda) or -im (-in); abl. -ĭde or -ī. But many, including most feminine proper names, have acc. -idem (-ida); abl. -ide,—not -im or -ī. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.)

Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative: as, Agamemnōn (or Agamemnō ), genitive -ŏnis, accusative -ŏna.

Stems in ont- form the nominative in -ōn: as, horizōn, Xenophōn; but a few are occasionally Latinized into ōn- (nom. -ō): as, Dracō, -ōnis; Antiphō, -ōnis.

Like Simoīs are declined stems in ant-, ent-, and a few in ūnt- (nominative in -ās, -īs, -ūs): as, Atlās, -antis; Trapezūs, -ūntis.

Some words fluctuate between different declensions: as Orpheus between the second and the third.

-ōn is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books: as, Metamorphōseōn, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem); Geōrgicōn, of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil).

Gender in the Third Declension

The Gender of nouns of this declension must be learned by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or feminine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gender (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with their principal exceptions, are the following:— Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted.

Masculine are nouns in -or, -ōs, -er, -ĕs (gen. -itis), -ex (gen. -ĭcis): as, color, flōs, imber , gurges ( gurgitis ), vertex ( verticis ).

Exceptions are the following:—

Feminine are arbor; cōs, dōs; linter.

Neuter are ador , aequor , cor , marmor; ōs ( ōris ); also os ( ossis );

cadāver, iter , tūber, ūber , vēr; and names of plants and trees in -er: as, acer, papāver.

Feminine are nouns in -ō, -ās, -ēs, -is, -ūs, -x, and in -s preceded by a consonant: as, legiō , cīvitās , nūbēs , avis , virtūs , arx , urbs . The nouns in -ō are mostly those in -dō and -gō, and abstract and collective nouns in -iō.

Exceptions are the following:—

Masculine are leō , leōnis; ligō,-ōnis; sermō , -ōnis; also cardō , harpagō margō , ōrdō , turbō; and concrete nouns in -iō: as, pugiō , ūniō , papiliō; Many nouns in -ō (gen. -ōnis ) are masculinby signification: as, gerō , carrier restiō , ropemaker : and family names (originally nicknames): as, Cicerō , Nāsō . See §§ 236 . c , 255.

acīnacēs , ariēs, celēs , lebēs , pariēs , pēs;

Nouns in -nis and -guis: as, īgnis , sanguis; also axis, caulis , collis , cucumis , ēnsis, fascis , follis , fūstis , lapis , mēnsis , orbis , piscis , postis , pulvis , vōmis;

mūs;

calix , fornix , grex , phoenīx, and nouns in -ex (gen. -icis） (§ 85);

dēns, fōns , mōns , pōns. Some nouns in -is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: as, Aprīlis (sc. mēnsis ), M., April; oriēns (sc. sōl ), M., the east; annālis (sc. liber ), M., the year-book.

Neuter are vās ( vāsis ); crūs , iūs , pūs, rūs , tūs.

Neuter are nouns in -a, -e, -l, -n, -ar, -ur, -ŭs: as, poēma , mare, animal, nōmen , calcar , rōbur, corpus; also lac and caput .

Exceptions are the following:—

Masculine are sāl, sōl , pecten, vultur , lepus .

Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis).

FOURTH DECLENSION

The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and Feminine nouns form the nominative by adding s; Neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but with ū (long).

Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows:

Gender in the Fourth Declension

Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine.

Exceptions: The following are Feminine: acus , anus, colus , domus , īdūs (plural), manus , nurus, porticus , quīnquātrūs (plural), socrus , tribus , with a few names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus , specus .

The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are cornū , genū , pecū (§ 105. f), verū. A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarians as occurring in certain cases.

Case-Forms in the Fourth Declension

The following peculiarities in case-forms of the Fourth Declension require notice:—

A genitive singular in -ī (as of the second declension) sometimes occurs in nouns in -tus: as, senātus , genitive senātī (regularly senātūs ).

In the genitive plural -uum is sometimes pronounced as one syllable, and may then be written -um: as, currum (Aen. 6.653) for curruum .

The dative and ablative plural in -ŭbus are retained in partus and tribus; so regularly in artus and lacus , and occasionally in other words; portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus.

Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff, have also forms of the second declension: as, fīcus, fig, genitive fīcūs or fīcī.

An old genitive singular in -uis or -uos and an old genitive plural in -uom occur rarely: as, senātuis, senātuos; fluctuom.

The ablative singular ended anciently in -ūd (cf. § 43. N. 1): as, magistrātūd.

Domus (F.), house, has two stems ending in u- and o-. Hence it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions:

Most nouns of the Fourth Declension are formed from verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-sus) (§ 238. b): cantus, song, CAN, canō, sing; cāsus (for † cad-tus ), chance, CAD, cadō , fall, exsulātus, exile, from exsulō, to be an exile ( exsul ).

Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy: cōnsulātus (as if from †cōnsulō, -āre), senātus , incestus .

The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (-sus） form the Supines of verbs (§ 159. b): as, spectātum , petītum; dictū, vīsū .

Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun: as, iussū ( meō ), by (my） command; so iniussū ( populī ), without (the people's) order. Of some only the dative is used: as, dīvīsuī .

FIFTH DECLENSION (ē-STEMS)

The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in ē-, which appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s.

Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows:—

Gender in the Fifth Declension

All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except diēs (usually M.), day, and merīdiēs (M.), noon.

Diēs is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general: as, cōnstitūtā diē, on a set day; longa diēs, a long time.

Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension

The following peculiarities require notice:—

Of nouns of the fifth declension, only diēs and rēs are declined throughout. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or accusative in aciēs , effigiēs, ēluviēs, faciēs , glaciēs , seriēs, speciēs, spēs . The forms faciērum , speciērum , speciēbus , spērum , spēbus , are cited by grammarians, also spērēs , spēribus , and some of these occur in late authors.

The Locative form of this declension ends in -ē. It is found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time:—

The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouns have forms of both: as, māteria , -iēs; saevitia , -iēs. The genitive and dative in -ēī are rarely found in these words.

Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension: as, requiēs , satiēs (also satiās , genitive -ātis), plēbēs (also plēbs, genitive plēbis), famēs, genitive famis , ablative famē. In the genitive and dative -ēī ( -ĕī ) was sometimes contracted into - ei : as, tribūnus plēb ei , tribune of the people ( plēbēs ). Genitives in -ī and -ē also occur: as, diī (Aen. 1.636) , plēbī-scītum , aciē (B. G. 2.23) . A few examples of the old genitive in -ēs are found (cf. -ās in the first declension, § 43 . b ). The dative has rarely -ē, and a form in -ī is cited.

DEFECTIVE NOUNS

Nouns wanting in the Plural

Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number only ( singulāria tantum ). These are—

Most proper names: as, Caesar, Cæsar; Gallia, Gaul.

Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass: as, aurum, gold; āēr, air; trīticum, wheat.

Abstract nouns: as, ambitiō, ambition; fortitūdō, courage; calor, heat.

Many of these nouns, however, are used in the plural in some other sense.

The plural of a proper name may be applied to two or more persons or places, or even things, and so become strictly common:— duodecim Caesarēs, the twelve Cæsars.

Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Transalpine).

Castores, Castor and Pollux; Iovēs, images of Jupiter.

The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nivēs, snowflakes; or different kinds of a thing: as, āerēs, airs (good and bad).

The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality, or the like:— quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority; ōtia, periods of rest; calōrēs , frīgora, times of heat and cold.

Nouns wanting in the Singular

Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found in the Plural ( plūrālia tantum ). Such are—

Many names of towns: as, Athēnae (Athens), Thūriī , Philippī , Vêiī .

Names of festivals and games: as, Olympia, the Olympic Games; Bacchānālia, feast of Bacchus; Quīnquātrūs, festival of Minerva; lūdī Rōmānī, the Roman Games.

Names of classes: as, optimātēs, the upper classes; mâiōrēs, ancestors; līberī, children; penātēs, household gods; Quirītēs, citizens (of Rome).

Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons; artūs, joints; dīvitiae, riches; scālae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors; forēs, double-doors; angustiae, a narrow pass (narrows); moenia, city walls.

Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English nouns in the singular number: as, dēliciae , delight , darling; faucēs , throat; fidēs , lyre (also singular in poetry); īnsidiae , ambush; cervīcēs , neck; viscera , flesh. The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion: as, ōra (for ōs ), the face; scēptra (for scēptrum ), sceptre; silentia (for silentium ), silence.

Some nouns of the above classes (§ 101. 1-4), have a corresponding singular, as noun or adjective, often in a special sense:

As noun, to denote a single object: as, Bacchānal, a spot sacred to Bacchus; optimās, an aristocrat.

As adjective: as, Catō Mâior, Cato the Elder.

In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scāla, a ladder, valva, a door; artus, a joint.

Nouns Defective in Certain Cases

Many nouns are defective in case-forms: Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted. —

Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular: fās , nefās , īnstar, nihil , opus (need), secus . The indeclinable adjective necesse is used as a nominative or accusative. The genitive nihilī and the ablative nihilō (from nihilum , nothing ) occur .

Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes):—

In the nominative singular: glōs (F.).

In the genitive singular: dicis , naucī (N.).

In the dative singular: dīvīsuī (M.) (cf. § 94. c).

In the accusative singular: amussim (M.); vēnum (dative vēnō in Tacitus).

In the ablative singular: pondō (N.); māne (N.); astū (M.), by craft; iussū , iniussū , nātū , and many other verbal nouns in -us (M.) (§ 94. c). Māne is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form mānī is used as ablative. Pondō with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A nominative singular astus and a plural astūs occur rarely in later writers.

In the accusative plural: īnfitiās .

Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes):—

In the nominative and ablative singular: fors, forte (F.).

In the genitive and ablative singular: spontis (rare), sponte (F.).

In the accusative singular and plural: dicam , dicās (F.).

In the accusative and ablative plural: forās , forīs (F.) (cf. forēs ), used as adverbs.

Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes):—

In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular: impetus, -um, -ū (M.) The dative singular impetuī and the ablative plural impetibus occur once each. ; luēs , -em, -ē (F.).

In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural: grātēs, -ibus (F).

In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural: iūgera , -um, -ibus (N.); but iūgerum , etc., in the singular (cf. § 105. b).

Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes):—

In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: diciōnis, -ī, -em, -e (F.).

Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular:—

Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frūgis , -ī, -em, -e (F.); opis , -ī (once only), -em, -e (F.; nominative Ops as a divinity).

Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: precī , -em, -e (F.).

Nouns found in the accusative and ablative: cassem , -e (F.); sordem , -e (F.).

Nouns found in the ablative only: ambāge (F.); fauce (F.); obice (C.).

Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural:—

The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusative only: fel ( fella ), far ( farra ), hordeum ( hordea ), iūs, broth ( iūra ), mel ( mella ), murmur ( murmura ), pūs ( pūra ), rūs ( rūra ), tūs orthūs ( tūra ). The neuter iūs , right , has only iūra in classical writers, but a very rare genitive plural iūrum occurs in old Latin.

calx , cor , cōs, crux, fax , faex, lanx,lūx, nex, ōs ( ōris ), The ablative plural ōribus is rare, the classical idiombeing in ōre omnium , in everybody's mouth , etc., not in ōribus omnium . os ( ossis ), The genitive plural ossium is late; ossuum (from ossua , plural of a neuter u- stem) is early and late. pāx, pix, rōs , sāl, sōl , vas ( vadis ), want the genitive plural.

Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural (see § 98. a).

Nouns defective in both singular and plural:—

Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative, accusative, dative, ablative plural: vicis , -em, -e; -ēs, -ibus.

Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular; genitive plural wanting: dapis , -ī, -em, -e; -ēs, -ibus.

An old nominative daps is cited.

VARIABLE NOUNS

Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender.

Nouns that vary in Declension are called heteroclites. That is, “nouns of different inflections” ( e)/teros , another , and klinw , to inflect ).

Colus (F.), distaff; domus (F.), house (see § 93), and many names of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions.

Some nouns vary between the Second and Third: as, iūgerum , -ī, -ō, ablative -ō or -e, plural -a, -um, -ibus; Mulciber, genitive -berī and -beris; sequester, genitive -trī and -tris; vās , vāsis , and (old) vāsum , -ī (§ 79. e).

Some vary between the Second, Third, and Fourth: as, penus , penum , genitive penī and penoris , ablative penū.

Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see § 98. c).

Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus, requiēs has genitive -ētis, dative wanting, accusative -ētem or -em, ablative -ē (once -ēte); famēs, regularly of the third declension, has ablative famē (§ 76. N. 1), and pūbēs (M.) has once dative pūbē (in Plautus).

Pecus varies between the Third and Fourth, having pecoris , etc., but also nominative pecū , ablative pecū; plural pecua, genitive pecuum .

Many vary between different stems of the same declension: as, femur (N.), genitive -oris, also -inis (as from † femen ); iecur (N.), genitive iecinoris, iocinoris , iecoris; mūnus (N.), plural mūnera and mūnia .

Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous. That is, “of different genders” ( e(/teros , another , and ge/nos , gender ).

The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um: balteus , cāseus , clipeus , collum , cingulum , pīleus, tergum , vāllum , with many others of rare occurrence.

The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the Singular:—

Many nouns are found in the Plural in a peculiar sense:—

NAMES OF PERSONS