Particles and word formation

Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are called Particles.

In their origin Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are either (1) case-forms, actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and phrases.

Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions (§§ 219 and 222).

ADVERBS

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS

Adverbs are regularly formed from Adjectives as follows:

From adjectives of the first and second declensions by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -ē: as, cārē, dearly, from cārus, dear (stem cāro-); amīcē, like a friend, from amīcus, friendly (stem amīco-). The ending -ē is a relic of an old ablative in -ēd (cf. § 43 . N. 1).

From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as i-stems:— fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave.

ācriter, eagerly, from ācer (stem ācri-), eager.

vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilāns (stem vigilant-).

prūdenter, prudently, from prūdēns (stem prūdent-).

aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-).

This suffix is perhaps the same as -ter in the Greek - teros and in uter , alter . If so, these adverbs are in origin either neuter accusatives (cf. d ) or masculine nominatives.

Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of both forms (-ē and -ter). Thus dūrus, hard, has both dūrē and dūriter; miser, wretched, has both miserē and miseriter .

The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an adverb: as, multum, much; facilĕ, easily; quid, why.

This is the origin of the ending -ius in the comparative degree of adverbs (§ 218): as, ācrius, more keenly (positive ācriter ); facilius, more easily (positive facilĕ ). These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives (§ 390 ).

The ablative singular neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives, pronouns, and nouns may be used adverbially: as, falsō, falsely; citŏ ,

quickly (with shortened o ); rēctā ( viā ), straight (straightway); crēbrō, frequently; volgō, commonly; fortĕ, by chance; spontĕ, of one's own accord. Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use: as, abundē , plentifully (as if from † abundus ; cf. abundō , abound ); saepĕ , often (as if from † saepis , dense , close-packed; cf. saepēs , hedge , and saepiō , hedge in ).

Further examples of Adverbs and other Particles which are in origin case-forms of nouns or pronouns are given below. In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful.

Neuter Accusative forms: nōn (for nē-oinom, later ūnum), not; iterum (comparative of i-, stem of is), a second time; dēmum (superlative of dē, down), at last.

Feminine Accusatives: partim, partly. So statim, on the spot; saltim, at least (generally saltem ), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular adverbial termination; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun- and verb-stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an accusative in -tim: as, sēparātim, separately, from sēparātus, separate. Some adverbs that appear to be feminine accusative are possibly instrumental: as, palam, openly; perperam, wrongly; tam, so; quam, as.

Plural Accusatives: as, aliās, elsewhere; forās, out of doors (as end of motion). So perhaps quia, because.

Ablative or Instrumental forms: quā, where; intrā, within; extrā, outside; quī, how; aliquī, somehow; forīs, out of doors; quō, whither; adeō, to that degree; ultrō, beyond; citrō, this side (as end of motion); retrō, back; illōc (for † illō-ce ), weakened to illūc, thither. Those in -trō are from comparative stems (cf. ūls, cis , re-).

Locative forms: ibi, there; ubi, where; illī , illī-c, there; peregrī ( peregrē ), abroad; hīc (for † hī-ce ), here. Also the compounds hodiē (probably for † hōdiē ), to-day; perendiē, day after to-morrow.

Of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by i ), with an ablative meaning: as, funditus, from the bottom, utterly; dīvīnitus, from above, providentially; intus, within; penitus, within; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -dō: as, quidem, indeed; quondam, once; quandō (cf. dōnec ), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of time), while; iam, now.

A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together into an adverb (cf. notwithstanding, nevertheless, besides):— postmodo, presently (a short time after).

dēnuō (for dē novō ), anew.

vidēlicet (for vidē licet ), to wit (see, you may).

nihilōminus, nevertheless (by nothing the less).

Other examples are: anteā , old antideā , before ( ante eā , probably ablative or instrumental); īlicō ( in locō ), on the spot, immediately; prōrsus , absolutely ( prō vorsus , straight ahead ); rūrsus ( re-vorsus ), again; quotannīs , yearly ( quot annīs , as many years as there are ); quam-ob-rem , wherefore; cōminus , hand to hand ( con manus ); ēminus , at long range ( ex manus ); nīmīrum , without doubt ( nī mīrum ); ob-viam (as in īre obviam , to go to meet ); prīdem (cf. prae and -dem in i-dem ), for some time; forsan ( fors an ), perhaps (it's a chance whether); forsitan ( fors sit an ), perhaps (it would be a chance whether); scīlicet († scī , licet ), that is to say (know, you may; cf. ī-licet , you may go ); āctūtum ( āctū , on the act , and tum , then ).

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS

The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows:—

a. Adverbs of Place

All these adverbs were originally case-forms of pronouns. The forms in -bi and -ic are locative, those in -ō and -ūc , -ā and -āc , ablative (see § 215 ); those in -inc are from -im (of uncertain origin) with the particle -ce added (thus illim, illin-c ).

ūsque, all the way to; usquam, anywhere; nusquam, nowhere; citrō, to this side; intrō, inwardly; ultrō, beyond (or freely, i.e. beyond what is required); porrō, further on.

quōrsum (for quō vorsum, whither turned?), to what end? hōrsum, this way; prōrsum, forward (prōrsus, utterly); intrōrsum, inwardly; retrōrsum, backward; sūrsum, upward; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; aliōrsum, another way.

b. Adverbs of Time

quandō, when? (interrogative); cum ( quom ), when (relative); ut, when, as; nunc, now; tunc ( tum ), then; mox, presently; iam, already; dum, while; iam diū , iam dūdum , iam prīdem, long ago, long since.

prīmum ( prīmō ), first; deinde ( posteā ), next after; postrēmum ( postrēmō ), finally; posteāquam , postquam, when (after that, as soon as).

umquam ( unquam ), ever; numquam ( nunquam ), never; semper, always.

aliquandō, at some time, at length; quandōque ( quandōcumque ), whenever; dēnique, at last.

quotiēns ( quotiēs ), how often; totiēns, so often; aliquotiēns, a number of times.

cotīdiē, every day; hodiē, to-day; herī, yesterday; crās, to-morrow; prīdiē, the day before; postrīdiē, the day after; in diēs, from day to day.

nōndum, not yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam prīmum, as soon as possible; saepe, often; crēbrō, frequently; iam nōn, no longer.

c. Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause

quam, how, as; tam, so; quamvīs, however much, although; paene, almost; magis, more; valdē, greatly; vix, hardly.

cūr , quārē, why; ideō , idcircō , proptereā, on this account, because; eō, therefore; ergō, itaque , igitur, therefore.

ita , sīc, so; ut ( utī ), as, how; utut , utcumque, however.

d. Interrogative Particles

an, -ne, anne , utrum , utrumne , num, whether.

nōnne , annōn, whether not; numquid , ecquid, whether at all.

On the use of the Interrogative Particles, see §§ 332, 335.

e. Negative Particles

nōn, not (in simple denial); haud , minimē, not (in contradiction); nē, not (in prohibition); nēve , neu, nor; nēdum, much less.

nē, lest; neque , nec, nor; nē ... quidem, not even.

nōn modo ... vērum ( sed ) etiam, not only ... but also.

nōn modo ... sed nē ... quidem, not only NOT ... but not even.

sī minus, if not; quō minus ( quōminus ), so as not.

quīn (relative), but that; (interrogative), why not?

nē , nec (in composition), not; so in nesciō, I know not; negō, I say no (âiō, I say yes); negōtium, business († nec-ōtium ); nēmō (nē- and hemō, old form of homō), no one; nē quis, lest any one; neque enim, for ... not.

For the use of Negative Particles, see § 325 ff.

For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverbs, see § 320 ff.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

The Comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusative of the comparative of the corresponding adjective; the Superlative is the Adverb in -ē formed regularly from the superlative of the Adjective:—

cārē, dearly (from cārus, dear); cārius, cārissimē.

miserē (miser iter ), wretchedly (from miser, wretched); miserius, miserrimē.

leviter (from levis, light); levius, levissimē.

audācter (audāc iter ) (from audāx, bold); audācius, audācissimē.

benĕ, well (from bonus, good); melius, optimē.

malĕ, ill (from malus, bad); pêius, pessimē.

The following are irregular or defective:—

diū, long (in time); diūtius, diūtissimē.

potius, rather; potissimum, first of all, in preference to all.

saepe, often; saepius, oftener, again; saepissimē.

satis, enough; satius, preferable.

secus, otherwise; sētius, worse.

multum ( multō ), magis, maximē, much, more, most.

parum, not enough; minus, less; minimē, least.

nūper, newly; nūperrimē.

temperē, seasonably; temperius. In poetry the comparative mage is sometimes used instead of magis .

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions were not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or meaning, but have become specialized in use. They developed comparatively late in the history of language. In the early stages of language development the cases alone were sufficient to indicate the sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened, adverbs were used for greater precision (cf. § 338). These adverbs, from their habitual association with particular cases, became Prepositions; but many retained also their independent function as adverbs.

Most prepositions are true case-forms: as, the comparative ablatives extrā, īnfrā, suprā (for †exterā, †īnferā, †superā), and the accusatives circum , cōram , cum (cf. § 215). Circiter is an adverbial formation from circum (cf. § 214. b. N.); praeter is the comparative of prae , propter of prope . The case-form of these prepositions in -ter is doubtful. Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle of vertō ); adversus is a compound of versus; trāns is probably an old present participle (cf. in-trā-re ); while the origin of the brief forms ab , ad , dē , ex , ob , is obscure and doubtful.

Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusative or with the Ablative.

The following prepositions are used with the Accusative:—

The following prepositions are used with the Ablative:— For palam etc., see § 432 .

The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Ablative, but with a difference in meaning:—

In and sub , when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by the ablative, rest in, a place: vēnit in aedīs, he came into the house; erat in aedibus, he was in the house.

disciplīna in Britanniā reperta atque inde in Galliam trānslāta esse exīstimātur, the system is thought to have been discovered in Great Britain and thence brought over to Gaul.

sub īlice cōnsederat, he had seated himself under an ilex.

sub lēgēs mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under laws).

The uses of the Prepositions are as follows:—

Ā, ab, away from, Ab signifies direction from the object, but often towards the speaker; compare dē , down from , and ex , out of. from, off from, with the ablative. a. Of place: as,ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city.

b. Of time: (1) from: as,ab hōrā tertiā ad vesperam, from the third hour till evening; (2) just after: as,ab eō magistrātū, after [holding] that office.

c. Idiomatic uses: ā reliquīs differunt, they differ from the others; ā parvulīs, from early childhood; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city; līberāre ab, to set free from; occīsus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy; ab hāc parte, on this side; ab rē êius, to his advantage; ā rē pūblicā, for the interest of the state.

Ad, to, towards, at, near, with the accusative (cf. in, into). a. Of place: as,ad urbem vēnit, he came to the city; ad merīdiem, towards the south; ad exercitum, to the army; ad hostem, toward the enemy; ad urbem, near the city.

b. Of time: as,ad nōnam hōram, till the ninth hour.

c. With persons: as,ad eum vēnit, he came to him.

d. Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia dēscendunt, they resort to punishment; ad haec respondit, to this he answered; ad tempus, at the [fit] time; adīre ad rem pūblicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pācem, to seek peace; ad latera, on the flank; ad arma, to arms; ad hunc modum, in this way; quem ad modum, how, as; ad centum, nearly a hundred; ad hōc, besides; omnēs ad ūnum, all to a man; ad diem, on the day.

Ante, in front of, before, with the accusative (cf. post, after). a. Of place: as,ante portam, in front of the gate; ante exercitum, in advance of the army.

b. Of time: as,ante bellum, before the war.

c. Idiomatic uses: ante urbem captam, before the city was taken; ante diem quīntum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth day before the Calends; ante quadriennium, four years before or ago; ante tempus, too soon (before the time).

Apud, at, by, among, with the accusative. a. Of place (rare and archaic): as,apud forum, at the forum (in the marketplace).

b. With reference to persons or communities: as,apud Helvētiōs, among the Helvetians; apud populum, before the people; apud aliquem, at one's house; apud sē, at home or in his senses; apud Cicerōnem, in [the works of] Cicero.

Circā, about, around, with the accusative (cf. circum, circiter). a. Of place: templa circā forum, the temples about the forum; circā sē habet, he has with him (of persons).

b. Of time or number (in poetry and later writers): circā eandem hōram, about the same hour; circā īdūs Octōbrīs, about the fifteenth of October; circā decem mīlia, about ten thousand.

c. Figuratively (in later writers), about, in regard to (cf. dē ): circā quem pūgna est, with regard to whom, etc.; circā deōs neglegentior, rather neglectful of (i.e. in worshipping) the gods.

Circiter, about, with the accusative. a. Of time or number: circiter īdūs Novembrīs, about the thirteenth of November; circiter merīdiem, about noon.

Circum, about, around, with the accusative. a. Of place: circum haec loca, hereabout; circum Capuam, round Capua; circum illum, with him; lēgātiō circum īnsulās missa, an embassy sent to the islands round about; circum amīcōs, to his friends round about.

Contrā, opposite, against, with the accusative. contrā Ītaliam, over against Italy; contrā haec, in answer to this.

a. Often as adverb: as,haec contrā, this in reply; contrā autem, but on the other hand; quod contrā, whereas, on the other hand.

Cum, with, together with, with the ablative.

a. Of place: as,—vāde mēcum, go with me; cum omnibus impedīmentīs, with all [their] baggage.

b. Of time: as,—prīmā cum lūce, at early dawn (with first light).

c. Idiomatic uses: māgnō cum dolōre, with great sorrow; commūnicāre aliquid cum aliquō, share something with some one; cum malō suō, to his own hurt; cōnflīgere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy; esse cum tēlō, to go armed; cum silentiō, in silence.

Dē, down from, from, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from; ex, out of). a. Of place: as,dē caelō dēmissus, sent down from heaven; dē nāvibus dēsilīre, to jump down from the ships.

b. Figuratively, concerning, about, of: Of originally meant from (cf. off ). as,cōgnōscit dē Clōdī caede, he learns of the murder of Clodius; cōnsilia dē bellō, plans of war.

c. In a partitive sense (compare ex), out of, of: as,ūnus dē plēbe, one of the people.

d. Idiomatic uses: multīs dē causīs, for many reasons; quā dē causā, for which reason; dē imprōvīsō, of a sudden; dē industriā, on purpose; dē integrō, anew; dē tertiā vigiliā, just at midnight (starting at the third watch); dē mēnse Decembrī nāvigāre, to sail as early as December.

Ex, ē, from (the midst, opposed to in ), out of, with the ablative (cf. ab and dē). a. Of place: as,ex omnibus partibus silvae ēvolāvērunt, they flew out from all parts of the forest; ex Hispāniā, [a man] from Spain.

b. Of time: as,ex eō diē quīntus, the fifth day from that (four days after); ex hōc diē, from this day forth.

c. Idiomatically or less exactly: ex cōnsulātū, right after his consulship: ex êius sententiā, according to his opinion; ex aequō, justly; ex imprōvīsō, unexpectedly; ex tuā rē, to your advantage; māgnā ex parte, in a great degree; ex equō pūgnāre, to fight on horseback; ex ūsū, expedient; ē regiōne, opposite; quaerere ex aliquō, to ask of some one; ex senātūs cōnsultō, according to the decree of the senate; ex fugā, in [their] flight (proceeding immediately from it); ūnus ē fīliīs, one of the sons.

In, with the accusative or the ablative. With the accusative, into (opposed to ex ). a. Of place: as,—in Ītaliam contendit, he hastens into Italy.

b. Of time, till, until: as,—in lūcem, till daylight.

c. Idiomatically or less exactly: in merīdiem, towards the south; amor in (ergā, adversus） patrem, love for his father; in āram cōnfūgit, he fled to the altar (on the steps, or merely to); in diēs, from day to day; in longitūdinem, lengthwise; in lātitūdinem patēbat, extended in width; in haec verba iūrāre, to swear to these words; hunc in modum, in this way; ōrātiō in Catilīnam, a speech against

Catiline; in perpetuum, forever; in pêius, for the worse; in diem vīvere, to live from hand to mouth (for the day).

With the ablative, in, on, among. In very various connections: as,—in castrīs, in the camp (cf. ad castra, to, at, or near the camp); in marī, on the sea; in urbe esse, to be in town; in tempore, in season; in scrībendō, while writing; est mihi in animō, I have it in mind, I intend; in ancorīs, at anchor; in hōc homine, in the case of this man; in dubiō esse, to be in doubt.

Īnfrā, below, with the accusative. a. Of place: as,ad mare īnfrā oppidum, by the sea below the town; īnfrā caelum, under the sky.

b. Figuratively or less exactly: as,—īnfrā Homērum, later than Homer; īnfrā trēs pedēs, less than three feet; īnfrā elephantōs, smaller than elephants; īnfrā īnfimōs omnīs, the lowest of the low.

Inter, between, among, with the accusative. inter mē et Scīpiōnem, between myself and Scipio; inter ōs et offam, between the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel); inter hostium tēla, amid the weapons of the enemy; inter omnīs prīmus, first of all; inter bibendum, while drinking; inter sē loquuntur, they talk together.

Ob, towards, on account of, with the accusative. a. Literally: (1) of motion (archaic): as,ob Rōmam, towards Rome (Ennius); ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place in which, before, in a few phrases: as,ob oculōs, before the eyes.

b. Figuratively, in return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account, balancing one thing against another): as,ob mulierem, in pay for the woman; ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, on account of (a similar mercantile idea), for: as,ob eam causam, for that reason; quam ob rem (quamobrem), wherefore, why.

Per, through, over, with the accusative. a. Of motion: as,—per urbem īre, to go through the city; per mūrōs, over the walls.

b. Of time: as,—per hiemem, throughout the winter.

c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments: as,—per hominēs idoneōs, through the instrumentality of suitable persons; licet per mē, you (etc.) may for all me. Hence, stat per mē, it is through my instrumentality; so, per sē, in and of itself.

d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions: as,—per iocum, in jest; per speciem, in show, ostentatiously.

Prae, in front of, with the ablative. a. Literally, of place (in a few connections): as,prae sē portāre, to carry in one's arms; prae sē ferre, to carry before one, (hence figuratively) exhibit, proclaim ostentatiously, make known.

b. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English for): as,prae gaudiō conticuit, he was silent for joy.

c. Of comparison: as,prae māgnitūdine corporum suōrum, in comparison with their own great size.

Praeter, along by, by, with the accusative. a. Literally: as,praeter castra, by the camp (along by, in front of); praeter oculōs, before the eyes.

b. Figuratively, beyond, besides, more than, in addition to, except: as,praeter spem, beyond hope; praeter aliōs, more than others; praeter paucōs, with the exception of a few.

Prō, in front of, with the ablative. sedēns prō aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor; prō populō, in presence of the people. So prō rōstrīs, on [the front of] the rostra;prō contiōne, before the assembly (in a speech).

a. In various idiomatic uses: prō lēge, in defence of the law; prō vitulā, instead of a heifer; prō centum mīlibus, as good as a hundred thousand; prō ratā parte, in due proportion; prō hāc vice, for this once; prō cōnsule, in place of consul; prō vīribus, considering his strength; prō virīlī parte, to the best of one's ability; prō tuā prūdentiā, in accordance with your wisdom.

Propter, near, by, with the accusative. propter tē sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. all along of): as,propter metum, through fear.

Secundum , Old participle of sequor . just behind, following, with the accusative. a. Literally: as,īte secundum mē (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum lītus, near the shore; secundum flūmen, along the stream (cf. secundō flūmine, down stream).

b. Figuratively, according to: as,secundum nātūram, according to nature.

Sub, under, up to, with the accusative or the ablative. Of motion, with the accusative: as,sub montem succēdere, to come close to the hill. a. Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night; sub lūcem, near daylight; sub haec dicta, at (following) these words.

Of rest, with the ablative: as,sub Iove, in the open air (under the heaven, personified as Jove); sub monte, at the foot of the hill. a. Idiomatically: sub eōdem tempore, about the same time (just after it).

Subter, under, below, with the accusative (sometimes, in poetry, the ablative). subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle; but,subter lītore (Catull.), below the shore.

Super, Comparative of sub . with the accusative or the ablative.

With the accusative, above, over, on, beyond, upon. a. Of place: super vāllum praecipitārī (Iug. 58) , to be hurled over the rampart; super laterēs coria indūcuntur (B.C. 2.10) , hides are drawn over the bricks; super terrae tumulum statuī (Legg. 2.65) , to be placed on the mound of earth; super Numidiam (Iug. 19) , beyond Numidia.

b. Idiomatically or less exactly: vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound; super vīnum (Q. C. 8.4) , over his wine.

With the ablative, concerning, about (the only use with this case in prose). hāc super rē, concerning this thing; super tālī rē, about such an affair; litterās super tantā rē exspectāre, to wait for a letter in a matter of such importance. a. Poetically, in other senses: līgna super focō largē repōnēns (Hor. Od. 1.9.5) , piling logs generously on the fire; nocte super mediā (Aen. 9.61), after midnight.

Suprā, on top of, above, with the accusative. suprā terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively: as,—suprā hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; suprā mōrem, more than usual; suprā quod, besides.

Tenus (postpositive), as far as, up to, regularly with the ablative, sometimes with the genitive (cf. § 359. b). With the ablative: Taurō tenus, as far as Taurus; capulō tenus, up to the hilt.

With the genitive: Cumārum tenus (Fam. 8.1.2), as far as Cumae. Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun, making an adverbial phrase: as, hāctenus , hitherto; quātenus , so far as; dē hāc rē hāctenus , so much for that (about this matter so far). Tenus was originally a neuter noun, meaning line or extent. In its use with the genitive (mostly poetical) it may be regarded as an adverbial accusative (§ 397 . a ).

Trans, across, over, through, by, with the accusative. a. Of motion: as,trāns mare currunt, they run across the sea; trāns flūmen ferre, to carry over a river; trāns aethera, through the sky; trāns caput iace, throw over your head.

b. Of rest: as,trāns Rhēnum incolunt, they live across the Rhine.

Ultrābeyond (on the further side), with the accusative.

cis Padum ultrāque, on this side of the Po and beyond; ultrā eum numerum, more than that number; ultrā fidem, incredible; ultrã modum, immoderate.

Some adverbs appear as prepositions: as , intus , īnsuper (see § 219 ). For Prepositions in Compounds, see § 267.

CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions, like prepositions (cf. § 219), are closely related to adverbs, and are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as, quod , an old accusative; dum , probably an old accusative (cf. tum, cum); vērō , an old neuter ablative of vērus; nihilōminus, none the less; proinde , lit. forward from there. Most conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, which cannot always be referred to their original case-forms.

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They are of two classes, Coördinate and Subordinate:—

Coördinate, connecting coördinate or similar constructions (see § 278. 2. a). These are:—

Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought as well as of words: as, et, and; aut, or; neque, nor.

Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought: as, sed, but.

Causal, introducing a cause or reason: as, nam, for.

Illative, denoting an inference: as, igitur, therefore.

Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or independent clause with that on which it depends (see § 278. 2. b). These are:—

Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, sī, if; nisi, unless.

Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition: as, ac sī, as if.

Concessive, denoting a concession or admission: as, quamquam, although (lit. however much it may be true that, etc.).

Temporal: as, postquam, after.

Consecutive, expressing result: as, ut, so that.

Final, expressing purpose: as, ut, in order that; nē, that not.

Causal, expressing cause: as, quia, because.

Conjunctions are more numerous and more accurately distinguished in Latin than in English. The following list includes the common conjunctions Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list of Correlatives. § 152 . and conjunctive phrases:—

COÖRDINATE

a. Copulative and Disjunctive

et , -que, atque ( ac ), and.

et ... et; et ... -que ( atque ); -que ... et; -que ... -que (poetical), both ... and.

etiam , quoque , neque nōn ( necnōn ), quīn etiam , itidem ( item ), also.

cum ... tum; tum ... tum, both ... and; not only ... but also.

quā ... quā, on the one hand ... on the other hand.

modo ... modo, now ... now.

aut ... aut; vel ... vel (-ve), either ... or.

sīve ( seu ) ... sīve, whether ... or.

nec ( neque ) ... nec ( neque ); neque ... nec; nec ... neque (rare), neither ... nor.

et ... neque, both ... and not.

nec ... et; nec ( neque ) ... -que, neither (both not) ... and.

b. Adversative

sed , autem , vērum , vērō , at, atquī, but.

tamen , attamen , sed tamen , vērum tamen, but yet, nevertheless.

nihilōminus, none the less.

at vērō, but in truth; enimvērō, for in truth.

cēterum, on the other hand, but.

c. Causal

nam , namque , enim , etenim, for.

quāpropter , quārē , quamobrem , quōcircā, unde, wherefore, whence.

d. Illative

ergō, igitur , itaque , ideō , idcircō , inde , proinde, therefore, accordingly.

SUBORDINATE

a. Conditional

sī, if; sīn, but if; nisi ( nī ), unless, if not; quod sī, but if.

modo , dum , dummodo, sī modo, if only, provided.

dummodo nē (dum nē, modo nē), provided only not.

b. Comparative

ut , utī , sīcut, just as; velut, as, so as; prout , praeut, ceu, like as, according as.

tamquam ( tanquam ), quasi, ut sī , ac sī , velut , velutī , velut sī, as if.

quam , atque ( ac ), as, than.

c. Concessive

etsī , etiamsī , tametsī, even if; quamquam ( quanquam ), although.

quamvīs , quantumvīs , quamlibet , quantumlibet, however much.

licet (properly a verb), ut , cum ( quom ), though, suppose, whereas.

d. Temporal

cum ( quom ), quandō, when; ubi , ut, when, as; cum prīmum , ut prīmum , ubi prīmum , simul , simul ac , simul atque, as soon as; postquam ( posteāquam ), after.

prius ... quam , ante ... quam, before; nōn ante ... quam, not ... until.

dum , ūsque dum , dōnec , quoad, until, as long as, while.

e. Consecutive and Final

ut ( utī ), quō, so that, in order that.

nē , ut nē, lest (that ... not, in order that not); nēve ( neu ), that not, nor.

quīn (after negatives), quōminus, but that (so as to prevent), that not.

f. Causal

quia , quod , quoniam († quom-iam ), quandō, because.

cum ( quom ), since.

quandōquidem , sī quidem , quippe , ut pote, since indeed, inasmuch as.

proptereā ... quod, for this reason ... that.

On the use of Conjunctions, see §§ 323, 324.

INTERJECTIONS

Some Interjections are mere natural exclamations of feeling; others are derived from inflected parts of speech, e.g. the imperatives em, lo (probably for eme, take); age, come, etc. Names of deities occur in herclē , pol (from Pollux ), etc. Many Latin interjections are borrowed from the Greek, as euge, euhoe, etc.

The following list comprises most of the Interjections in common use:—

ō, ēn, ecce , ehem, papae , vāh (of astonishment).

iō, ēvae, ēvoe, euhoe (of joy).

heu , ē˘heu, vae, alas (of sorrow).

heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling); st, hist.

êia , euge (of praise).

prō (of attestation): as, prō pudor, shame!

FORMATION OF WORDS

All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems are significant elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent, and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage, sea-nymph, seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of uninflected stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence words were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which were neither, because they were in fact both; for the distinction between noun-stems and verb-stems had not yet been made.

After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words which seemed the simplest was regarded as the primitive form, and from this the other words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose. Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjectives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns.

In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns.

Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of which the Primitive is lost.

Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in derivation were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which no proper Primitive ever existed.

ROOTS AND STEMS

Roots For the distinction between Roots and Stems. see §§ 24 . 25. are of two kinds:—

Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena).

Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction.

From verbal roots come all parts of speech except pronouns and certain particles derived from pronominal roots.

Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them. They are of two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective-stems) and (2) Verb-stems. Noun-stems and verb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded; but in general they were treated as distinct.

Words are formed by inflection: (1) from roots inflected as stems; (2) from derived stems (see § 232).

A root used as a stem may appear—

With a short vowel: as, duc-is ( dux ), DUC; nec-is ( nex ); i-s, i-d . So in verbs: as, es-t , fer-t (cf. § 174. 2).

With a long vowel The difference in vowel-quantity in the same root (as DŪ˘C) depends on inherited variations (see § 17 . a ). : as, lūc-is ( lūx ), LUC; pāc-is ( pāx ). So in verbs: dūc-ō , ī-s for †eis, from eō , īre; fātur from fārī .

With reduplication: as, fur-fur, mar-mor , mur-mur. So in verbs: as, gi-gnō (root GEN), si-stō (root STA).

DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES

Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems by means of suffixes. These are:—

Primary: added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verbstems.

Secondary: added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem. Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal roots (§ 228. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin. The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being original (see § 227 ), is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary. Thus in hosticus ( hosti + cus ) the suffix -cus , originally ko- (see § 234 . 2.12) primary, as in paucus , has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but in pudīcus , aprīcus , it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or apparently connected with verbs. So in English - able was borrowed as a primary suffix ( tolerable , eatable ), but also makes forms like clubbable , salable; -some is properly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome , lonesome , but makes also such words as meddlesome , venturesome. It is the stem of the word, not the nominative , that is formed by the derivative suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative will usually be given.

Primary Suffixes

The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by means of Primary Suffixes, are few. For—

Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-ly-some-ish. meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome.

By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus,—

A word like mēns, mentis , by the suffix ōn- (nom. -ō), gave mentiō , and this, being divided into men + tiō, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -tiō: as, lēgā-tiō, embassy.

A word like audītor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like audītōr-ius, of which the neuter ( audītōrium ) is used to denote the place where the action of the verb is performed. Hence tōrio- (nom. -tōrium), N., becomes a regular noun-suffix (§ 250. a).

So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ation, and with this is made starvation, though there is no such word as starvate.

Examples of primary stem-suffixes are:—

I. Vowel suffixes:—

o- (M., N.), ā- (F.), found in nouns and adjectives of the first two declensions: as, sonus , lūdus , vagus , toga (root TEG).

i-, as in ovis , avis; in Latin frequently changed, as in rūpēs, or lost, as inscobs ( scobis , root SCAB).

u-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as insuā-vis (for †suādvis, instead of †suā-dus, cf. h(du/s), ten-uis (root TEN in tendō ), and remaining alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root AK, sharp, in ācer, aciēs , w)ku/s), pecū , genū .

II. Suffixes with a consonant:—

to- (M., N.), tā- (F.), in the regular perfect passive participle, as tēctus , tēctum; sometimes with an active sense, as in pōtus , prānsus; and found in a few words not recognized as participles, as pūtus (cf. pūrus ), altus ( alō ).

ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis , vestis , pars , mēns. But in many thei is lost.

tu- in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as āctus , lūctus .

no- (M., N.), nā- (F.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns, as māgnus , plēnus , rēgnum .

ni-, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as īgnis , sēgnis .

nu-, rare, as in manus , pīnus, cornū .

mo- (mā-), with various meanings, as inanimus, almus , fīrmus , forma .

vo- (vā-) (commonly uo-, uā-), with an active or passive meaning, as in equus ( equos ), arvum , cōnspicuus , exiguus , vacīvus ( vacuus ).

ro- (rā-), as in ager (stem ( ag-ro- ), integer (cf. intāctus ), sacer , plērī-que (cf. plēnus, plētus).

lo- (lā-), as in caelum (for † caed-lum ), chisel, exemplum , sella (for † sedla ).

yo- (yā-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as eximius , audācia , Flōrentia , perniciēs .

ko- (kā-), sometimes primary, as in paucī (cf. pau=ros), locus (for stlocus ). In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem: as,apex, cortex, loquāx .

en- (on-, ēn-, ōn-), in nouns of agency and abstracts: as, aspergō , compāgē (-ĭnis), gerō (-ōnis).

men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself: as, agmen flūmen , fulmen .

ter- (tor-, tēr-, tōr-, tr-), forming nouns of agency: as, pater (i.e. protector), frāter (i.e. supporter), ōrātor.

tro-, forming nouns of means: as, claustrum (CLAUD), mūlctrum (MULG).

es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes: as, genus ( generis ), tempus (see § 15. 4). The infinitive in -ere (as in reg-ere ) is a locative of this stem ((--er-e for †-es-i).

nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present active participles: as, legēns , with some adjectives from roots unknown: as, frequēns , recēns .

The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the Latin.

Significant Endings

Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called Significant Endings.

They form: (1) Nouns of Agency; (2) Abstract Nouns (including Names of Actions); (3) Adjectives (active or passive). There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as nouns (§ 20 . b. N. 2).

DERIVATION OF NOUNS

Nouns of Agency

Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives.

Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an action are formed from roots or verb-stems by means of the suffixes—

-tor (-sor), M.; -trīx, F.

By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems of lost verbs: as, viā-tor, traveller, from via, way (but cf. the verb inviō ). The termination -tor ( -sor ) has the same phonetic change as the supine ending -tum ( -sum ), and is added to the same form of root or verb-stem as that ending. The stem-ending is tōr- (§ 234 . 2.15), which is shortened in the nominative. The feminine form is always -trīx . Masculines in -sor lack the feminine, except expulsor ( expultrīx ) and tōnsor ( tōnstrīx ).

t-, M. or F., added to verb-stems makes nouns in -es (-itis, -etis; stem it-, et-） descriptive of a character:— prae-stes, -stitis , (verb-stem from root STA, stāre, stand), guardian.

teges, -etis (verb-stem tege-, cf. tegō, cover), a coverer, a mat.

pedes, -itis ( pēs , ped-is, foot, and I, root of īre, go), foot-soldier.

-ō (genitive -ōnis, stem ōn )-, M., added to verb-stems So conceived, but perhaps this termination was originally added to noun-stems. indicates a person employed in some specific art or trade:— com-bibō (BIB as root in bibō , bibere, drink), a pot-companion.

gerō, -ōnis (GES in gerō , gerere, carry), a carrier.

This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal characteristics (cf. § 255 ).

Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns

Names of Actions are confused, through their terminations, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities), and with concrete nouns denoting means and instrument.

They are also used to express the concrete result of an action (as often in English).

Thus legiō is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body of soldiers collected); cf. levy in English.

Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from roots and verb-stems by means of the endings—

Added to roots or forms conceived as roots—

Apparently added to roots or verb-stems—

Nouns denoting acts, or means and results of acts, are formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the suffixes—

-men, N.; -mentum, N.; -mōnium, N.; -mōnia, F.

So

-mōnium and -mōnia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other nouns and from adjectives: as, sāncti-mōnia, sanctity (sānctus, holy); mātrimōnium, marriage (māter, mother.） Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. § 234 . 2.14); -mentum is a compound of men- and to- , and appears for the most part later in the language than -men : as, mōmen , movement (Lucr.); mōmentum (later). So elementum is a development from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns in -men . -mōnium and -mōnia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed from mōn- (a by-form of men- ), which was early associated with mo- . Thus almus

(stem almo-), fostering; Almōn, a river near Rome; alimōnia, support. But the last was formed directly from alō when -mōnia had become established as a supposed primary suffix.

Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots and verb-stems (rarely from noun-stems) by means of the neuter suffixes—

-bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum

A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns and adjectives:—

Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective-stems, rarely from noun-stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suffixes—

-ia (-iēs), -tia (-tiēs), -tās, -tūs, -tūdō

In stems ending in o- or ā- the stem-vowel is lost before -ia (as superb-ia ) and appears as i before -tās, -tūs, -tia (as in boni-tās , above).

Consonant stems often insert i before -tās: as, loquāx (stem loquāc-),loquāci-tās; buthones-tās,mâies-tās (as if from old adjectives in -es),ūber-tās, volup-tās . o after i is changed toe: as, pius (stem pio-),pie-tās; socius , socie-tās.

In like manner -dō and -gō (F.) form abstract nouns, but are associated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems:— cupī-dō, desire, from cupere, to desire (as if from stem cupī-).

dulcē-dō, sweetness (cf. dulcis, sweet), as if from a stem dulcē-, cf. dulcē-scō.

lumbā-gō, lumbago (cf. lumbus, loin), as if from †lumbō, -āre.

Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. § 234 . 2.11). -tia is formed by adding -ia to stems with a t- suffix: as, mīlitia , from mīles (stem mīlit- ); molestia from molestus ; clēmentia from clēmēns ; whence by analogy, mali-tia , avāri-tia . -tās is inherited, but its component parts, tā- + ti- , are found as suffixes in the same sense: as, senecta from senex ; sēmen-tis from sēmen . -tūs is tū- + ti- , cf. servitū-dō . -dō and -gō appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy; but -dō is do- + ōn- : as, cupidus , cupīdō ; gravidus , gravēdō (cf. gravē-scō ); albidus , albēdō (cf. albēscō ); formidus , hot , formīdō (cf. formīdulōsus ), ( hot flash? ) fear; -gō is possibly co- + ōn- ; cf. vorāx , vorāgō , but cf. Cethēgus . -tūdō is compounded of -dō with tu- stems, which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf. volūmen , from volvō ): as, cōnsuētū-dō , valētū-dō , habitū-dō ; whence servitūdō (cf. servitūs , tūtis ).

Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices and groups, are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by means of the suffixes—

-ium, -tium

Vowel stems lose their vowel before -ium: as, collēg-ium, from collēga . -ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -ius . It is an inherited primary suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary. -tium is formed like -tia , by adding -ium to stems with t : as, exit-ium , equit-ium (cf. exitus , equitēs ); so, by analogy, calvitium , servitium (from calvus , servus ).

Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means of the suffixes—

-nia, F.; -nium, -lium, -cinium, N.

For Diminutives and Patronymics, see §§ 243, 244.

DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES

Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems).

Nominal Adjectives

Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gender, that of the primitive, and are used as Diminutive Nouns.

They are formed by means of the suffixes—

-ulus (-a, -um), -olus (after a vowel), -culus, -ellus, -illus

-ciō, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used with masculines only: as, homun-ciō, a dwarf (from homō, a man).

Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship, are formed by adding to proper names the suffixes— -adēs, -idēs, -īdēs, -eus, M.; -ās, -is, -ēis, F.

These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns in Latin:— Atlās: Atlanti-adēs, Mercury; Atlant-idĕs (Gr. plur.), the Pleiads.

Scīpiō : Scīpi-adēs, son of Scipio.

Tyndareus : Tyndar-idēs, Castor or Pollux, son of Tyndarus; Tyndar-is, Helen, daughter of Tyndarus.

Anchīsēs : Anchīsi-adēs, Æneas, son of Anchises.

Thēseus: Thēs-īdēs, son of Theseus.

Tȳdeus: Tȳd-īdēs, Diomedes, son of Tydeus.

Oīleus : Âiāx Oīl-eus, son of Oileus.

Cisseus : Cissē-is, Hecuba, daughter of Cisseus.

Thaumās : Thaumant-iās, Iris, daughter of Thaumas.

Hesperus: Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, -idis), plur., the daughters of Hesperus, the Hesperides.

Adjectives meaning full of, prone to, are formed from nounstems with the suffixes—

-ōsus, -lēns, -lentus

Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns by means of the regular participial endings—

-tus, -ātus, -ītus, -ūtus

Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in general made of or belonging to, are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes—

-eus, -ius, -āceus, -īcius, -āneus (-neus), -ticus

Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from nounstems with the suffixes—

-ālis, -āris, -ēlis, -īlis, -ūlis

Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by means of the suffixes— -ānus, -ēnus, -īnus; -ās, -ēnsis; -cus, -acus (-ācus), -icus; -eus, -êius, -icius

So from common nouns:—

But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from:

Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become nouns:—

Of these terminations, -ānus , -ēnus , -īnus are compounded from -nus added to a stem-vowel: as, arca , arcānus ; collis , collīnus . The long vowels come from a confusion with verb-stems (as in plē-nus , fīnī-tus , tribū-tus ), and from the noun-stem in ā- . as, arcānus . A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb-stems in ō- and ū- : as, colōnus ( colō , cf. incola ), patrōnus (cf. patrō , -āre ), tribūnus (cf. tribuō , tribus ), Portūnus (cf. portus ), Vacūna (cf. vacō , vacuus ).

Other adjectives meaning in a general way belonging to (especially of places and times) are formed with the suffixes—

ter (-tris), -ester (-estris), -timus, -nus, -ernus, -urnus, -ternus (-turnus)

Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro- , § 234 . 2.16) to stems in t- or d- . Thus † pedet-tri- becomes pedestri- , and others follow the analogy. -nus is an inherited suffix (§ 234 . 2.4). -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to s- stems: as, diur-nus (for † dius-nus ), and hence, by analogy, hodiernus ( hodiē ). By an extension of the same principle were formed the suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like paternus and nocturnus . Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes—

-ārius, -tōrius (-sōrius)

Here -ius (§ 234 . 2.11) is added to shorter forms in -āris and -or : as, pecūliārius (from pecūliāris ), bellātōrius (from bellātor ). These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see § 254 ).

Verbal Adjectives

Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a quality or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb-stems with the suffixes—

-āx, -idus, -ulus, -vus (-uus, -īvus, -tīvus)

-āx denotes a faulty or aggressive tendency; -tīvus is oftener passive.

-idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbidus, grassy (from herba, herb); tumidus, swollen (cf. tumu-lus, hill; tumul-tus, uproar); callidus, tough, cunning (cf. callum, tough flesh); mūcidus, slimy (cf. mūcus, slime); tābidus, wasting (cf. tābēs, wasting disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems.

-ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf. aemulus, rivalling (cf. imitor and imāgō); sēdulus, sitting by, attentive (cf. domi-seda, homestaying, and sēdō, set, settle, hence calm); pendulus, hanging (cf. pondō , ablative, in weight; perpendiculum, a plummet; appendix, an addition); strāgulus, covering (cf. strāgēs ); legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things sacred).

-vus seems originally primary (cf. § 234. 2.8), but -īvus and -tīvus have become secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestīvus, of summer (from aestus, heat); tempestīvus, timely (from tempus ); cf. domes-ticus (from domus ).

Adjectives expressing passive qualities, but occasionally active, are formed by means of the suffixes—

-ilis, -bilis, -ius, -tilis (-silis)

Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are formed with the suffixes—

-ndus, -bundus, -cundus

-ndus (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflexive adjectives:—

-bundus, -cundus, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed by the verb:—

Here belong also the participial suffixes -minus, -mnus (cf. Greek -menos), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is still discernible:— Cf. § 163 . footnote 1.

Nouns with Adjective Suffixes

Many fixed forms of the Nominal Adjective suffixes men tioned in the preceding sections, make Nouns more or less regularly used in particular senses:—

-ārius, person employed about anything:— argent-ārius , M., silversmith, broker, from argentum, silver.

Corinthi-ārius, M., worker in Corinthian bronze (sarcastic nickname of Augustus), from ( aes ) Corinthium, Corinthian bronze.

centōn-ārius, M., ragman, from centō, patchwork.

-āria, thing connected with something:— argent-āria, F., bank, from argentum, silver.

arēn-āriae, F. plural, sandpits, from arēna, sand.

Asin-āria, F., name of a play, from asinus, ass. Probably an adjective with fābula , play , understood.

-ārium, place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning):— aer-ārium, N., treasury, from aes, copper.

tepid-ārium, N., warm bath, from tepidus, warm.

sūd-ārium, N., a towel, cf. sūdō , -āre, sweat.

sal-ārium, N., salt money, salary, from sāl, salt.

calendārium, N., a note-book, from calendae, calends.

-tōria (-sōria):— Agitā-tōria, F., a play of Plautus, The Carter, from agitātor.

vor-sōria, F., a tack (nautical), from vorsus, a turn.

-tōrium (-sōrium), place of action (with a few of more general meaning): dēvor-sōrium, N., an inn, as from dēvortō, turn aside.

audī-tōrium, N., a lecture-room, as from audiō, hear.

ten-tōrium, N., a tent, as from tendō, stretch.

tēc-tōrium, N., plaster, as from tegō , tēctus, cover.

por-tōrium, N., toll, cf. portō, carry, and portus, harbor.

-īle, animal-stall:— bov-īle, N., cattle-stall, from bōs , bŏvis, ox, cow.

ov-īle, N., sheepfold, from ovis , stem ovi-, sheep.

-al for -āle, thing connected with the primitive:— capit-al, N., headdress, capital crime, from caput, head.

penetr-āle (especially in plural), N., inner apartment, cf. penetrō, enter.

Sāturn-ālia, N. plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Sat urn, from Sāturnus .

-ētum, N. (cf. -ātus, -ūtus, see § 246. N.), -tum, place of a thing, especially with names of trees and plants to designate where these grow:— querc-ētum, N., oak grove, from quercus, oak.

olīv-ētum, N., olive grove, from olīva, an olive tree.

salic-tum, N., a willow thicket, from salix, a willow tree.

Argil-ētum, N., The Clay Pit, from argilla, clay.

-cus (sometimes with insertedi, -icus), -īcus, in any one of the genders, with various meanings:— vīli-cus, M., a steward, vīli-ca, F., a stewardess, from vīlla, farm-house.

fabr-ica, F., a workshop, from faber, workman.

am-īcus , M., am-īca, F., friend, cf. amāre, to love.

būbul-cus, M., ox-tender, frombūb-ulus, diminutive, cf. bōs, ox.

cant-icum, N., song, from cantus, act of singing.

rubr-īca, F., red paint, from ruber, red.

-eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings:— alv-eus, M., a trough, from alvus, the belly.

capr-ea, F., a wild she-goat, from caper, he-goat.

flamm-eum, N., a bridal veil, from flamma, flame, from its color.

-ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester:— eques-ter, M., knight, for †equet-ter.

sequ-ester, M., a stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, follow.

ole-aster, M., wild olive, from olea, an olive tree.

IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES

The suffix -ō (genitive -ōnis, stem ōn-), usually added to verb-stems (see § 236. c), is sometimes used with noun-stems to form nouns denoting possessed of. These were originally adjectives expressing quality or character, and hence often appear as proper names:— epulae, a feast; epul-ō, a feaster.

nāsus, a nose; nās-ō, with a large nose (also as a proper name).

volus (in bene-volus ), wishing; vol-ōnēs (plural), volunteers.

frōns, forehead; front-ō, big-head (also as a proper name).

cūria, a curia; cūri-ō, head of a curia (also as a proper name).

restis, a rope; resti-ō, a rope-maker.

Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used in their compound form:— ad-verb-ium, adverb; ad, to, and verbum, verb, but without the intervening †adverbus.

lāti-fund-ium, large estate; lātus, wide, fundus, estate, but without the inter vening †lātifundus.

su-ove-taur-īlia, a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull; sūs, swine, ovis, sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin, though such formations are common in Sanskrit.

DERIVATION OF VERBS

Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative.

Primitive Verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech.

Derivative Verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin as a separate language.

Derivative Verbs are of two main classes:—

Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives.

Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs

Denominative Verbs

Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun-stem and adjective-stem.

Verbs of the First Conjugation are formed directly from ā-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning: as, fuga, flight; fugāre, put to flight.

Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o- stems, changing the o- into ā-. These are more commonly transitive:— stimulō , -āre, to incite, from stimulus, a good (stem stimulo-).

aequō , -āre, to make even, from aequus, even (stem aequo-).

hībernō , -āre, to pass the winter, from hībernus, of the winter (stem hīberno-).

albō , -āre, to whiten, from albus, white (stem albo-).

piō , -āre, to expiate, from pius, pure (stem pio-).

novō, -āre, to renew, from novus, new (stem novo-).

armō , -āre, to arm, from arma, arms (stem armo-).

damnō , -āre, to injure, from damnum, injury (stem damno-).

A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by analogy from consonant and i- or u-stems, adding ā to the stem:— The type of all or most of the denominative formations in §§ 259 - 262 was inherited, but the process went on in the development of Latin as a separate language. vigilō , -āre, to watch, from vigil, awake.

exsulō , -āre, to be in exile, from exsul, an exile.

auspicor, -ārī, to take the auspices, from auspex (stem auspic-), augur.

pulverō , -āre, to turn (anything) to dust, from pulvis (stem pulver- for pulvis-), dust.

aestuō, -āre, to surge, boil, from aestus (stem aestu-), tide, seething

levō, -āre, to lighten, from levis (stem levi-), light.

A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems; but most are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost:— albeō, -ēre, to be white, from albus (stem ( albo/e- ), white.

cāneo, -ēre, to be hoary, from cānus (stem ( cāno/e- ), hoary.

clāreō , -ēre, to shine, from clārus, bright.

claudeō , -ēre, to be lame, from claudus, lame.

algeō, -ēre, to be cold, cf. algidus, cold.

Some verbs of the Third Conjugation in -uō, -uere, are formed from noun-stems in u- and have lost a consonant i:— statuō (for † statu-yō ), -ere, to set up, from status, position.

metuō , -ere, to fear, from metus, fear.

acuō , -ere, to sharpen, from acus, needle.

arguō , -ere, to clear up, from inherited stem †argu-, bright (cf. a)/rguros).

Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in u: as, fluō , fluere , flow; so-lvō (for † sē-luō , cf. lu/w ), solvere , dissolve. Some roots have a parasitic u: as, loquor , locūtus , speak.

Many ī-verbs or verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are formed from i-stems:— mōlior, -īrī, to toil, from mōlēs (-is), mass.

fīniō , -īre, to bound, from fīnis, end.

sitiō , -īre, to thirst, from sitis, thirst.

stabiliō , -īre, to establish, from stabilis, stable.

Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as i-stems:— bulliō, -īre, to boil, from bulla (stem bullā-), bubble.

condiō, -īre, to preserve, from condus (stem condo-), storekeeper.

īnsāniō, -īre, to rave, from īnsānus (stem īnsāno-), mad.

gestiō, -īre, to show wild longing, from gestus (stem gestu-), gesture.

Some of this form are of doubtful origin: as, ōrdior , begin , cf. ōrdo and exōrdium . The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -iō of the third conjugation (p. 102).

Some are formed with -iō from consonant stems:— cūstōdiō, -īre, to guard, from cūstōs (stem cūstōd-), guardian.

fulguriō , -īre, to lighten, from fulgur, lightning.

Here probably belong the so-called desideratives in -uriō (see § 263 . 4. N.).

Verbs from Other Verbs

The following four classes of verbs regularly derived from other verbs have special meanings connected with their terminations. These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but the formations had become so associated with actual verbs that new derivatives were often formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem.

Inceptives or Inchoatives add -scō For -scō in primary formation, see § 176 . b. 1. to the present stem of verbs. They denote the beginning of an action and are of the Third Conjugation. Of some there is no simple verb in existence:— calē-scō, grow warm, from caleō, be warm.

labā-scō, begin to totter, from labō, totter.

scī-scō, determine, from sciō, know.

con-cupī-scō, conceive a desire for, from cupiō, desire.

alē-scō, grow, from alō, feed.

So īrā-scor, get angry; cf. īrā-tus .

iuvenē-scō, grow young; cf. iuvenis, young man.

mītē-scō, grow mild; cf. mītis, mild.

vesperā-scit, it is getting late; cf. vesper, evening.

Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect and supine systems of simple verbs: as, calēscō , grow warm , caluī ; ārdēscō , blaze forth , ārsī ; proficīscor , set out , profectus .

Intensives or Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem and end in-tō or -itō (rarely -sō). They denote a forcible or repeatedaction, but this special sense often disappears. Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in -itō (not -ātō). iac-tō, hurl, from iaciō, throw.

dormī-tō, be sleepy, from dormiō, sleep.

vol-itō, flit, from volō, fly.

vēndi-tō, try to sell, from vēndō, sell.

quas-sō, shatter, from quatiō, shake.

They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative.

Compound suffixes -titō, -sitō, are formed with a few verbs. These are probably derived from other Iteratives; thus, cantitō may come from cantō, iterative of canō, sing.

Another form of Intensives—sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs of practice—ends in -essō (rarely -issō). These denote a certain energy or eagerness of action rather than its repetition:— cap-essō, lay hold on, from capiō, take.

fac-essō, do (with energy), from faciō, do.

pet-esso, pet-issō, seek (eagerly), from petō, seek.

These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and supine of the fourth:— arcessō , arcessĕre , arcessīvī , arcessītum, summon.

lacessō , lacessĕre , lacessīvī , lacessītum, provoke.

The verbs in -essō , -issō , show the same formation as levāssō , impetrāssere , iūdicāssit , etc. (§ 183 . 5), but its origin is not fully explained.

Diminutives end in -illō, and denote a feeble or pettyaction:— cav-illor, jest, cf. cavilla, raillery.

cant-illō, chirp or warble, from cantō, sing.

Diminutives are formed from verb-stems derived from real or supposed diminutive nouns.

Desideratives end in -turiō (-suriō), and express longing or wishing.They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in common use:— par-turiō, be in labor, from pariō, bring forth.

ē-suriō (for † ed-turiō ), be hungry, from edō, eat.

Others are used by the dramatists.

Desideratives are probably derived from some noun of agency: as, ēmpturiō , wish to buy , from ēmptor , buyer. Vīsō , go to see , is an inherited desiderative of a different formation.

COMPOUND WORDS

A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of two or more simple stems.

A final stem-vowel of the first member of the compound usually disappears before a vowel, and usually takes the form of i before a consonant. Only the second member receives inflection. The second part generally has its usual inflection; but, as this kind of composition is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection of its own (as, cornicen , -cinis ; lūcifer , -ferī ; iūdex , -dicis ), from stems not occurring in Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as, animus , exanimis ; nōrma , abnōrmis (see § 73 ). In composition, stems regularly have their uninflected form: as, īgni-spicium , divining by fire. But in o- and ā- stems the final vowel of the stem appears as i- , as in āli-pēs (from āla , stem ālā- ); and i- is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it: as, flōri-comus , flower-crowned (from flōs , flōr-is , and coma , hair ).

Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, however, often becomes attached to a verb.

New stems are formed by Composition in three ways:—

The second part is simply added to the first:— su-ove-taurīlia (sūs, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull (cf. § 255. a).

septen-decim (septem, decem), seventeen.

The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb (Determinative Compounds):— lāti-fundium (lātus, fundus), a large landed estate.

omni-potēns (omnis, potēns), omnipotent.

The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal force (Objective Compounds):— agri-cola ( ager , field, † cola akin to colō , cultivate), a farmer.

armi-ger ( arma , arms, † ger akin to gerō , carry), armor-bearer.

corni-cen ( cornū , horn, † cen akin to canō , sing), horn-blower.

carni-fex ( carō , flesh, †fexakin to faciō, make), executioner.

Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun, may become adjectives, meaning possessed of the quality denoted:— āli-pēs (āla, wing, pēs, foot), wing-footed.

māgn-animus (māgnus, great, animus, soul), great-souled.

an-ceps (amb-, at both ends, caput, head), double.

Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some further derivative, the proper compound not being found in Latin.

Syntactic Compounds

In many apparent compounds, complete words—not stems—have grown together in speech. These are not strictly compounds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntactic Compounds. Examples are:—

Compounds of faciō , factō , with an actual or formerly existing nounstem confounded with a verbal stem in ē-. These are causative in force. cōnsuē-faciō, habituate (cf. cōnsuē-scō, become accustomed).

cale-faciō, cale-factō, to heat (cf. calē-scō, grow warm).

An adverb or noun combined with a verb:— bene-dīcō (bene, well, dīcō, speak), to bless.

satis-faciō (satis, enough, faciō, do), to do enough (for).

Many apparent compounds of stems:— fide-iubeō (fide, surety, iubeō, command), to give surety.

mān-suētus (manuī, to the hand, suētus, accustomed), tame.

Mārci-por ( Mārcī puer ), slave of Marcus.

Iuppiter (†Iū, old vocative, and pater), father Jove.

anim-advertō ( animum advertō ), attend to, punish.

A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns:— prō-cōnsul, proconsul (for prō cōnsule, instead of a consul).

trium-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virōrum ).

septen-triō, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem triōnēs, the Seven Plough-Oxen).

In all these cases it is to be observed that words, not stems, are united.

Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixing a Particle to some other part of speech.

Prepositions are often prefixed to Verbs. In these compounds the prepositions retain their original adverbial sense:— ā, ab , AWAY: ā-mittere, to send away.

ad, TO, TOWARDS: af-ferre ( ad-ferō ), to bring.

ante , BEFORE: ante-ferre, to prefer; ante-cellere, to excel.

circum , AROUND: circum-mūnīre, to fortify completely.

com-, con- ( cum ), TOGETHER or FORCIBLY: cōn-ferre, to bring together; collocāre, to set firm.

dē , DOWN, UTTERLY: dē-spicere, despise; dē-struere, destroy.

ē, ex, OUT: ef-ferre ( ec-ferō ), to carry forth, uplift.

in (with verbs), IN, ON, AGAINST: īn-ferre, to bear against.

inter , BETWEEN, TO PIECES: inter-rumpere, to interrupt.

ob , TOWARDS, TO MEET: of-ferre, to offer; ob-venīre, to meet.

sub , UNDER, UP FROM UNDER: sub-struere, to build beneath; sub-dūcere, to lead up

super, UPON, OVER AND ABOVE: super-fluere, to overflow.

In such compounds, however, the prepositions sometimes have their crdinary force as prepositions, especially ad , in , circum , trāns , and govern the case of a noun: as, trānsīre flūmen , to cross a river (see § 388 . b ). Short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before two: as, faciō , cōnficiō , cōnfectus ; iaciō , ēiciō , ēiectus . But long a is retained: as, perāctus .

VERBS are also compounded with the following inseparable particles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin:— amb- (am-, an-), AROUND: amb-īre, to go about (cf. a)mfi/, about).

dis-, dī-, ASUNDER, APART: dis-cēdere, to depart (cf. duo, two); dī-vidĕre, to divide.

por-, FORWARD: por-tendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. porrō, forth).

red-, re-, BACK, AGAIN: red-īre, to return; re-clūdere, to open (from claudō, shut); re-ficere, to repair (make again).

sēd-, sē-, APART: sē-cernō, to separate; cf. sēd-itiō, a going apart, secession ( eō , īre, to go).

Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the verbs to which they correspond:— per-fuga, deserter; cf. per-fugiō.

trā-dux, vine-branch; cf. trā-dūcō ( trāns-dūcō ).

ad-vena, stranger; cf. ad-veniō.

con-iux ( con-iūnx ), spouse; cf. con-iungō.

in-dex, pointer out; cf. in-dīcō.

prae-ses, guardian; cf. prae-sideō.

com-bibō, boon companion; cf. com-bibō, -ĕre.

An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix.

Of these, per- (less commonly prae-), very; sub-, somewhat; in-, not, ar regular, and are very freely prefixed to adjectives:—

The negative in- sometimes appears in combination with an adjective that does not occur alone:— in-ermis, unarmed (cf. arma, arms).

im-bellis, unwarlike (cf. bellum, war).

im-pūnis, without punishment (cf. poena, punishment).

in-teger, untouched, whole (cf. tangō, to touch, root TAG).

in-vītus, unwilling (probably from root seen in vī-s, thou wishest).

PART SECOND — SYNTAX

INTRODUCTORY NOTE