Syntax of the sentence and cases

The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of language, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of thought. A form of words—like ō puerum pulchrum! oh! beautiful boy—expresses a thought and might even be called a sentence; though it does not logically declare anything, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all.

At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt significant in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language,—just as to a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary form of proposition: as a child might say fire bright; horse run. With this began the first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there was no distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a later stage forms were differentiated in function and—by various processes of composition which cannot be fully traced—Inflections were developed. These served to express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts of Speech.

Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined. But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Particular Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language.

In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence: that is, the completed statement, with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two simple sentence-forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sentences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in conjunctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination). In this way, through various stages of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were produced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea I beseech you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaesō and īgnōscās were used side by side, quaesō īgnōscās; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression in a conjunction, quaesō ut īgnōscās , forming a complex sentence. The results of these processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax.

THE SENTENCE

Kinds of Sentences

A Sentence is a form of words which contains a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.

A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative Sentence: as,—canis currit, the dog runs.

A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interrogative Sentence: as,—canisne currit? does the dog run?

A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclamatory Sentence: as,— quam celeriter currit canis! how fast the dog runs!

A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence: as,—ī, curre per Alpīs, go, run across the Alps; currat canis, let the dog run.

Subject and Predicate

Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate.

The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of. The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject.

Thus in canis currit, the dog runs, canis is the subject, and currit the predicate.

The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun, or some word or group of words used as a Noun:— equitēs ad Caesarem vēnērunt, the cavalry came to Cæsar.

hūmānum est errāre, to err is human.

quaeritur num mors malum sit. the question is whether death is an evil.

But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of the verb:—

The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as in canis currit, the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in Caesar cōnsul erat, Cæsar was consul).

Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective, and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective).

Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, cōnsul the predicate noun, and erat the copula (see § 283).

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.

A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete its sense (see § 274): as,—frātrem cecīdit, he slew his brother.

An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete its sense:—

Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the word which completes their sense. Thus mēnsam fēcit , he made a table (which was not in existence before), is distinguished from mēnsam percussit , he struck a table (which already existed). A transitive verb may often be used absolutely , i.e. without any object expressed: as,— arat , he is ploughing , where the verb does not cease to be transitive because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding,— quid , what? agrum suum , his land. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter Verbs respectively.

Object

The person or thing immediately affected by the action of a verb is called the Direct Object.

A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb is called the Indirect Object.

Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object; but an Indirect Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs (§§ 362, 366):— pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his son.

mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me a field.

mihi (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me.

The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed dis tinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 388 . a ).

With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct object (Objective):— hominem videō, I see the man (Accusative).

hominī serviō, I serve the man (Dative, see § 367).

hominis misereor, I pity the man (Genitive, see § 354. a).

homine amīcō ūtor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative, see § 410).

Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by an intransitive verb with a preposition:— petit aprum, he aims at the boar.

laudem affectat, he strives after praise.

cūrat valētūdinem, he takes care of his health.

meum cāsum doluērunt, they grieved at my misfortune.

rīdet nostram āmentiam (Quinct. 55) , he laughs at our stupidity.

When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put in the Nominative case:— Active: pater fīlium vocat, the father calls his son.

Passive: fīlius ā patre vocātur, the son is called by his father.

Active: lūnam et stellās vidēmus, we see the moon and the stars.

Passive: lūna et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear).

Modification

A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word, or by a group of words (a phrase or a clause).

The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in the same way.

A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an appositive (§ 282), or the oblique case of a noun.

Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man endures patiently, the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter, patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures.

The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word to which it belongs.

Thus in the sentence puerī patrem videō, I see the boy's father, the genitive puerī limits patrem (by excluding any other father).

A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb.

Thus in the sentence vir fuit summā nōbilitāte, he was a man of the highest nobility, the words summā nōbilitāte, of the highest nobility, are used for the adjective nōbilis, noble (or nōbilissimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective Phrase.

So in the sentence māgnā celeritāte vēnit, he came with great speed, the words māgnā celeritāte, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, quickly (or celerrimē, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase.

Clauses and Sentences

Sentences are either Simple or Compound.

A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple Sentence.

A sentence containing more than one statement is called a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called a Clause.

If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are said to be Coördinate. They are usually connected by a Coördinate Conjunction (§ 223. a); but this is sometimes omitted:— dīvide et imperā, divide and control. But,—

vēnī, vīdī, vīcī, I came, I saw, I conquered.

If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called the Main Clause.

This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either a Subordinate Conjunction (§ 223. b) or a Relative:— ōderint dum metuant, let them hate so long as they fear.

servum mīsit quem sēcum habēbat, he sent the slave whom he had with him.

A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is sometimes called Complex. A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses.

Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds.

A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb is called a Relative Clause:— Mosa prōfluit ex monte Vosegō, quī est in fīnibus Lingonum (B. G. 4.10) , the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the Lingones.

For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sentences, see § 308. f.

A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Temporal Clause:— cum tacent, clāmant (Cat. 1.21) , while they are silent, they cry aloud.

hominēs aegrī morbō gravī, cum iactantur aestū febrīque, sī aquam gelidam biberint, prīmō relevārī videntur (id. 1.31), men suffering with a severe sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink cold water, seem at first to be relieved.

A clause containing a Condition, introduced by sī, if (or some equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.

Thus, sī aquam gelidam biberint , prīmō relevārī videntur (in b, above) is a Conditional Sentence, and sī ... biberint is a Conditional Clause.

A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final Clause:— edō ut vīvam, I eat to live (that I may live).

mīsit lēgātōs quī dīcerent, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say).

A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Consecutive Clause:— Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional: and subordinate clauses may be coördinate with each other tam longē aberam ut nōn vidērem, I was too far away to see (so far away that I did not see).

AGREEMENT

A word is said to agree with another when it is required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person.

The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes called the Four Concords:—

The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate (§§ 281-284).

The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (§ 286).

The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent (§ 305).

The agreement of the Finite Verb with its Subject (§ 316).

A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied in that word.

This use is called Synesis, or cōnstrūctiō ad sēnsum (construction according to sense).

AGREEMENT OF NOUNS

A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or thing, agrees with it in Case.

The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 282) or a Predicate noun (§ 283).

Apposition

A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Appositive, and is said to be in apposition:— externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungēbat animōs (Liv. 2.39) , fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts. [Here the appositive belongs to the subject.]

quattuor hīc prīmum ōmen equōs vīdī; (Aen. 3.537), I saw here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate.]

litterās Graecās senex didicī; (Cat. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man. [Here senex , though in apposition with the subject of didicī , really states something further: viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act (Predicate Apposition).]

Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition):— Nec P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clārissimī virī atque amplissimī, vim tribūnīciam sustinēre potuērunt (Clu. 95) , neither Publius Popilius nor Quintus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could withstand the power of the tribunes.

Gnaeus et Pūblius Scīpiōnēs, Cneius and Publius Scipio (the Scipios).

An Adjective may be used as an appositive:— ea Sex. Rōscium inopem recēpit (Rosc. Am. 27) , she received Sextus Roscius in his poverty (needy).

An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and Number when it can:— sequuntur nātūram, optimam ducem (Lael. 19) , they follow nature, the best guide.

omnium doctrīnārum inventrīcēs Athēnās (De Or. 1.13) , Athens, discoverer of all learning.

But such agreement is often impossible: as, ōlim truncus eram fīculnus , inūtile līgnum (Hor. S. 1.8.1) , I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log.

A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 427) is put in the Ablative, with or without the preposition in:— Antiochīae, celebrī quondam urbe (Arch. 4) , at Antioch, once a famous city.

Albae cōnstitērunt, in urbe mūnītā; (Phil. 4.6), they halted at Alba, a fortified town.

For a Genitive in apposition with a Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see § 302. 6

For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see § 343. d.

For the construction with nōmen est , see § 373. a.

Predicate Noun or Adjective

With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective.

The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when so used is called the copula (i.e. connective).

Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the socalled copulative verbs signifying to become, to be made, to be named, to appear, and the like.

A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or a copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject:— pācis semper auctor fuī; (Lig. 28), I have always been an adviser of peace.

quae pertinācia quibusdam, eadem aliīs cōnstantia vidērī potest (Marc. 31) , what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.

êius mortis sedētis ultōrēs (Mil. 79) , you sit as avengers of his death.

habeātur vir ēgregius Paulus (Cat. 4.21) , let Paulus be regarded as an extraordinary man.

ego patrōnus exstitī; (Rosc. Am. 5), I have come forward as an advocate.

dīcit nōn omnīs bonōs esse beātōs, he says that not all good men are happy.

A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is in the plural:— cōnsulēs creantur Caesar et Servīlius (B. C. 3.1) , Cæsar and Servilius are elected consuls.

Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb:— sunt virī fortēs, there are (exist) brave men. [Cf. vīxēre fortēs ante Agamemnona (Hor. Od. 4.9.25), brave men lived before Agamemnon.]

For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see §§ 392, 415. N.

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES

Attributive and Predicate Adjectives

Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.

An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as, —bonus imperātor, a good commander; stellae lūcidae, bright stars; verbum Graecum, a Greek word.

All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives:—

stellae lūcidaeerant, the stars were bright.

sit Scīpiō clārus (Cat. 4.21) , let Scipio be illustrious.

hominēsmītīs reddidit (Inv. 1.2) , has rendered men mild.

tria praedia Capitōnīpropria trāduntur (Rosc. Am. 21) , three farms are handed over to Capito as his own.

cōnsilium cēpēruntplēnum sceleris (id. 28), they formed a plan full of villany.

A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb (§ 283 ); it may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming , calling , or the like (§ 393 . N.); or it may be used in apposition like a noun (§ 282 . b ).

Rules of Agreement

Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case:— vir fortis, a brave man.

illa mulier, that woman.

urbium māgnārum, of great cities.

cum ducentīs mīlitibus, with two hundred soldiers.

imperātor victus est, the general was beaten.

secūtae sunt tempestātēs, storms followed.

All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns and to participles.

With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive):— Nīsus et Euryalus prīmī (Aen. 5.294) , Nisus and Euryalus first.

Caesaris omnī et grātiā et opibus fruor (Fam. 1.9.21) , I enjoy all Cæsar's favor and resources.

An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is occasionally plural ( synesis , § 280 . a ): as, Iuba cum Labiēnō captī (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken.

A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied (synesis, § 280. a):— pars certāre parātī (Aen. 5.108) , a part ready to contend.

colōniae aliquot dēductae, Prīscī Latīnī appellātī (Liv. 1.3) , several colonies were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.

multitūdō convictī sunt (Tac. Ann. 15.44) , a multitude were convicted.

māgna pars raptae (id. 1.9), a large part [of the women] were seized.

A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive genitive by which it is limited: as, vēlōcissimum animālium delphīnus est (Plin. N. H. 9.20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures.

One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns of different genders. In such cases,—

An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun:— multae operae ac labōris, of much trouble and toil.

vīta mōrēsque meī, my life and character.

sī rēs, sī vir, sī tempusūllum dīgnum fuit (Mil. 19) , if any thing, if any man, if any time was fit.

A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the Nouns form one connected idea:— factus est strepitus et admurmurātiō; (Verr. 1.45), a noise of assent was made (noise and murmur).

This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject (§ 317 . c ).

But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without life:— uxor deinde ac līberī amplexī (Liv. 2.40) , then his wife and children embraced him.

labor (M.) voluptāsque (F.) societāte quādam inter sē nātūrālī sunt iūncta (N.) (id. 5.4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alliance.

If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural:— rēx rēgiaque classis ūnā profectī (Liv. 21.50) , the king and the royal fleet set out together.

nātūrāinimīca sunt lībera cīvitās et rēx (id. 44.24), by nature a free state and a king are hostile.

lēgātōs sortēsque ōrāculī exspectandās (id. 5.15), that the ambassadors and the replies of the oracle should be waited for.

Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. § 289. c):—

stultitia et temeritās et iniūstitia ... sunt fugienda (Fin. 3.39) , foliy, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.

Adjectives used Substantively

Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), the masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things:—

Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive:— tuus vīcīnus proximus, your next-door neighbor.

propinquī cēterī, his other relatives.

meus aequālis, a man of my own age.

êius familiāris Catilīna (Har. Resp. 5) , his intimate friend Catiline.

Leptae nostrī familiārissimus (Fam. 9.13.2) , a very close friend of our friend Lepta.

When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an adjective, a noun must be added:— bonī, the good; omnia, everything (all things); but,—

potentia omnium rērum, power over everything.

Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant association:— Āfricus [ventus], the southwest wind; Iānuārius [mēnsis], January; vitulīna [carō], veal (calf's flesh); fera [bēstia], a wild beast; patria [terra], the fatherland; Gallia [terra], Gaul (the land of the Gallī); hīberna [castra], winter quarters; trirēmis [nāvis], a three-banked galley, trireme; argentārius [faber], a silversmith; rēgia [domus], the palace; Latīnae [fēriae], the Latin festival.

These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in § 288 . They include the names of winds and months (§ 31 ).

For Nouns used as Adjectives, see § 321. c.

For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see § 321. d.

Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses:—

The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an abstract quality:—

honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality).

opus est mātūrātō, there is need of haste. [Cf. impersonal passives § 208. d.]

The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea:—

omnēs fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things).

A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. § 287. a):— trīste lupus stabulīs (Ecl. 3.80) , the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.

varium et mūtābile semper fēmina (Aen. 4.569) , woman is ever a changing and fickle thing.

malum mihi vidētur esse mors (Tusc. 1.9) , death seems to me to be an evil.

A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause:— istuc ipsum nōn esse (Tusc. 1.12) , that very “not to be.”

hūmānum est errāre, to err is human.

aliud est errāre Caesarem nōlle, aliud nōlle miserērī; (Lig. 16), it is one thing to be unwilling that Cæsar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.

Adjectives with Adverbial Force

An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an adverb:— prīmus vēnit, he was the first to come (came first).

nūllus dubitō, I no way doubt.

laetī audiēre, they were glad to hear.

erat Rōmae frequēns (Rosc. Am. 16) , he was often at Rome.

sērus in caelum redeās (Hor. Od. 1.2.45) , mayst thou return late to heaven.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows:—

The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality: as,—brevior, rather short; audācior, too bold.

The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as,—mōns altissimus, a very high mountain. The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive.

With quam , vel , or ūnus the Superlative denotes the highest possible degree:— quam plūrimī, as many as possible.

quam maximē potest (maximē quam potest), as much as can be.

vel minimus, the very least.

vir ūnus doctissimus, the one most learned man.

A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum , valdē , very , or by per or prae in composition (§ 267 . d. 1): as,— valdē malus , very bad = pessimus ; permāgnus , very great; praealtus , very high (or deep ). A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition: as,— subrūsticus , rather clownish , or by minus , not very; minimē , not at all; parum , not enough; nōn satis , not much. The comparative mâiōrēs (for mâiōrēs nātū , greater by birth ） has the special signification of ancestors; so minōrēs often means descendants.

For the Superlative with quisque , see § 313. b. For the construction of a substantive after a Comparative, see §§ 406, 407; for that of a clause, see § 535. c, 571. a. For the Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative ( multō etc.), see § 414.

When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the Comparative:— longior quam lātior aciēs erat (Liv. 27.48) , the line was longer than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).

vērior quam grātior (id. 22.38), more true than agreeable.

So also with adverbs: as, — libentius quam vērius (Mil. 78) , with more freedom than truth.

Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive:— disertus magis quam sapiēns (Att. 10.1.4) , eloquent rather than wise.

clārī magis quam honestī (Iug. 8) , more renowned than honorable.

A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes connected by quam . This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed:— clārīs mâiōribus quam vetustīs (Tac. Ann. 4.61) , of a family more famous than old.

vehementius quam cautē (Tac. Agr. 4) , with more fury than good heed.

Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succession—also medius , [ cēterus ], reliquus—usually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant:— summus mōns, the top of the hill.

in ultimā plateā, at the end of the place.

prior āctiō, the earlier part of an action.

reliquī captīvī, the rest of the prisoners.

in colle mediō (B. G. 1.24) , half way up the hill (on the middle of the hill).

inter cēteram plānitiem (Iug. 92) , in a region elsewhere level.

A similar use is found in sērā ( multā ) nocte , late at night , and the like. But medium viae , the middle of the way; multum diēī , much of the day , also occur.

PRONOUNS

A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction (§ 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not named.

Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.

Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.

Others are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.

In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows:—

Personal Pronouns

The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same constructions as nouns.

The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for distinction or emphasis:— tē vocō, I call you. But,—

quis mē vocat? ego tē vocō, who is calling me? I (emphatic) am calling you.

The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively (§ 346), and that in -ī oftenest objectively (§ 348):— mâior vestrum, the elder of you.

habētis ducem memorem vestrī, oblītum suī; (Cat. 4.19), you have a leader who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.

pars nostrum, a part (i.e. some) of us.

The genitives nostrum , vestrum , are occasionally used objectively (§ 348 ): as,— cupidus vestrum (Verr. 3.224) , fond of you; cūstōs vestrum (Cat. 3.29) , the guardian of you (your guardian). “One of themselves” is expressed by ūnus ex suīs or ipsīs (rarely ex sē ), or ūnus suōrum .

The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except the reflexive sē . The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Relative (§§ 296. 2, 308. f）

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or substantively.

As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives (§§ 286, 287):— hōc proeliō factō, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).

eōdemproeliō, in the same battle.

ex eīsaedificiīs, out of those buildings.

As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially ofis:— Caesar et exercitus êius, Cæsar and his army (not suus ). [But, Caesar exercitumsuum dīmīsit, Cæsar disbanded his [own] army.]

sī obsidēs abeīs dentur (B. G. 1.14) , if hostages should be given by them (persons just spoken of).

hī sunt extrā prōvinciam trāns Rhodanum prīmī; (id. 1.10), they (those just mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone.

ille minimum propter adulēscentiam poterat (id. 1.20), he (emphatic) had very little power, on account of his youth.

An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers (cf. § 306):— hīc locus est ūnus quō perfugiant; hīc portus, haec arx, haec āra sociōrum (Verr. 5.126) , this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.

rērum caput hōc erat, hīc fōns (Hor. Ep. 1.17.45) , this was the head of things, this the source.

eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhūc mortālis nēmō est cōnsecūtus [for id. ..quod] (Lael. 18) , they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.

The main uses of hīc , ille , iste , and is are the following:—

Hīc is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person.

It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for “the latter” of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing; more rarely for “the former,” when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often it refers to that which has just been mentioned.

Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.); and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person.

It is sometimes used to mean “the former”; also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud ) to mean “the following.”

Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness: often in allusion to the person addressed,—hence called the demonstrative of the second person.

It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and frequently implies antagonism or contempt.

Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative quī :— vēnit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litterās abs tē reddidit (Att. 2.1.1) , your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.

eum quem, one whom.

eum cōnsulem quī nōn dubitet (Cat. 4.24) , a consul who will not hesitate.

The pronouns hīc , ille , and is are used to point in either direction, back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned.

The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea:— est illud quidem vel maximum, animum vidēre (Tusc. 1.52) , that is in truth a very great thing,—to see the soul.

The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned:— nūllam virtūs aliam mercēdem dēsīderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28) , virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.

But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Commonly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other construction is preferred:— cum eī Simōnidēs artem memoriae pollicērētur: oblīviōnis, inquit, māllem (Fin. 2.104) , when Simonides promised him the art of memory, “I should prefer,” said he, “[that] of forgetfulness.”

Caesaris exercitus Pompêiānōs ad Pharsālum vīcit, the army of Cæsar defeated that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.

The main uses of īdem and ipse are as follows:—

When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or īdem (often with the concessive quidem ) is used to indicate that person or thing:—

per ūnum servum et eum ex gladiātōriō lūdō; (Att. 1.16.5), by means of a single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school.

vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. 4.7) , imprisonment, and that perpetual.

Ti. Gracchus rēgnum occupāre cōnātus est, vel rēgnāvit is quidem paucōs mēnsīs (Lael. 41) , Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or rather he actually reigned a few months.

So rarely with ille : as, nunc dextrā ingemināns ictūs , nunc ille sinistrā (Aen. 5.457) , now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left. [In imitation of the Homeric o(/ ge : cf. Aen. 5.334 ; 9.796.]

Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time):— ōrātiō splendida et grandis et eadem in prīmīs facēta (Brut. 273) , an oration, brilliant, able, and very witty too.

cum [haec] dīcat, negat īdem esse in Deō grātiam (N. D. 1.121) , when he says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).

This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.

The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns, with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis:— turpe mihi ipsī vidēbātur (Phil. 1.9) , even to me (to me myself) it seemed disgraceful.

id ipsum, that very thing; quod ipsum, which of itself alone.

in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.

tum ipsum (Off. 2.60) , at that very time.

The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just , very , mere , etc. In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he will come himself ) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself ): in Latin the former would be translated by ipse , the latter by sē or sēsē .

Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows:—

As an emphatic pronoun of the third person:— idque reī pūblicae praeclārum, ipsīsglōriōsum (Phil. 2.27) , and this was splendid for the state, glorious for themselves.

omnēs bonī quantum inipsīs fuit (id. 2.29), all good men so far as was in their power (in themselves).

dī capitīipsīus generīque reservent (Aen. 8.484) , may the gods hold in reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.

To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person:— vōbīscumipsīrecordāminī; (Phil. 2.1), remember in your own minds (yourselves with yourselves).

To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons:— ipse dīxit (cf. au)to\s e)/fa), he (the Master) said it.

Nōmentānus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. 2.8.23) , Nomentanus was above [the host] himself [at table].

Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see § 300. b).

Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate:— mē ipse cōnsōlor (Lael. 10) , I console myself. [Not mē ipsum , as the English would lead us to expect.]

Reflexive Pronouns

The Reflexive Pronoun ( sē ), and usually its corresponding possessive ( suus ), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause:— sē ex nāvī prōiēcit (B. G. 4.25) , he threw himself from the ship.

Dumnorīgem ad sē vocat (id. 1.20), he calls Dumnorix to him.

sēsē castrīs tenēbant (id. 3.24), they kept themselves in camp.

contemnī sē putant (Cat. M. 65) , they think they are despised.

Caesar suās cōpiās subdūcit (B. G. 1.22) , Cæsar leads up his troops.

Caesar statuit sibi Rhēnum esse trānseundum (id. 4.16), Cæsar decided that he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).

For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns ( meī , tuī , etc.) and the corresponding possessives ( meus , tuus , etc.) are used:— mortī mē obtulī; (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.

hinc tē rēgīnae ad līmina perfer (Aen. 1.389) , do you go (bear yourself) hence to the queen's threshold.

quid est quod tantīs nōs in labōribus exerceāmus (Arch. 28) , what reason is there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils?

singulīs vōbīs novēnōs ex turmīs manipulīsque vestrī similēs ēligite (Liv. 21.54) , for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine like yourselves.

In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a double use of Reflexives.

The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its own clause (Direct Reflexive):— iūdicārī potest quantum habeat in sēbonī cōnstantia (B. G. 1.40) , it can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).

[Caesar] nōluit eum locum vacāre, nē Germānī ēsuīs fīnibus trānsīrent (id. 1.28), Cæsar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from their territories.

sī qua sīgnificātiō virtūtis ēlūceat ad quam sē similis animus adplicet et adiungat (Lael. 48) , if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar disposition may attach itself.

If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to that subject (Indirect Reflexive):— petiērunt utsibi licēret (B. G. 1.30) , they begged that it might be allowed them (the petitioners).

Iccius nūntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittātur (id. 2.6), Iccius sends a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.

decima legiō eī grātiās ēgit, quod dē sē optimum iūdicium fēcisset (id. 1.41), the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high opinion of them.

sī obsidēs ab eīs (the Helvetians) sibi (Cæsar, who is the speaker) dentur, sē (Cæsar) cum eīs pācem esse factūrum (id. 1.14), [Cæsar said that] if hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.

Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse: Thus, —cum ipsī deō nihil minus grātum futūrum sit quam nōn omnibus patēre ad sē plācandum viam (Legg. 2.25) , since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than that the way to appease him should not be open to all men.

If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally found:— sunt ita multī ut eōs carcer capere nōn possit (Cat. 2.22) , they are so many that the prison cannot hold them. [Here sē could not be used; so also in the example following.]

ibi in proximīs vīllīs ita bipartītō fuērunt, ut Tiberis inter eōs et pōns interesset (id. 3.5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge were between them (the divisions).

nōn fuit eō contentus quod eī praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25) , he was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.

Compare: quī fit, Maecēnās, ut nēmō, quam sibi sortem seu ratiō dederit seu fors obiēcerit, illā contentus vīvat (Hor. S. 1.1.1) , how comes it, Mœcenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has assigned him or chance has thrown in his way? [Here sibi is used to put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]

Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive:— cūr dē suā virtūte aut dē ipsīus dīligentiā dēspērārent (B. G. 1.40) , why (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence?

omnia aut ipsōs aut hostēs populātōs (Q. C. 3.5.6) , [they said that] either they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive.]

quī sē ex hīs minus timidōs exīstimārī volēbant, nōn sē hostem verērī, sed angustiās itineris et māgnitūdinem silvārum quae intercēderent inter ipsōs (the persons referred to by sē above) atque Ariovistum ... timēre dīcēbant (B. G. 1.39) , those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.

audīstis nūper dīcere lēgātōs Tyndaritānōs Mercurium quī sacrīs anniversāriīs apud eōs colerētur esse sublātum (Verr. 4.84) , you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero wavers between apud eōs colēbātur , a remark of his own, and apud sē colerētur , the words of the ambassadors. eōs does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the people—the Tyndaritani.]

Special uses of the Reflexive are the following:—

The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the subject of a suppressed main clause:— Paetus omnīs librōs quōs frāter suus relīquisset mihi dōnāvit (Att. 2.1) , Pœtus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation) his brother had left him.

The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse:— Sōcratem cīvēs suī interfēcērunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellowcitizens.

quī poterat salūs sua cuiquam nōn probārī; (Mil. 81), how can any one fail to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]

hunc sī secūtī erunt suī comitēs (Cat. 2.10) , this man, if his companions follow him.

Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed: as, —studeō sānāre sibi ipsōs (Cat. 2.17) , I am anxious to cure these men for their own benefit (i.e. ut sānī sibi sint ).

Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in it:— suīs flammīs dēlēte Fīdēnās (Liv. 4.33) , destroy Fidenœ with its own fires (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. 1.32.]

The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective:— suī laus, self-praise.

habētis ducem memorem vestrī, oblītum suī (Cat. 4.19) , you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself.

perditī hominēs cum suī similibus servīs (Phil. 1.5) , abandoned men with slaves like themselves.

The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or verbal abstract used indefinitely:— contentum suīs rēbus esse maximae sunt dīvitiae (Par. 51) , the greatest wealth is to be content with one's own.

cui prōposita sit cōnservātiō suī (Fin. 5.37) , one whose aim is self-preservation.

Inter sē (nōs, vōs), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is egularly used to express reciprocal action or relation:— inter sē cōnflīgunt (Cat. 1.25) , contend with each other.

inter sē continentur (Arch. 2) , are joined to each other.

Possessive Pronouns

The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not those of the possessor:— haec ōrnāmenta sunt mea (Val. 4.4) , these are my jewels. [ mea is neuter plural, though the speaker is a woman.]

meī sunt ōrdinēs, mea dīscrīptiō; (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the arrangement. [ mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]

multa in nostrō collēgiō praeclāra (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in our college. [ nostrō is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]

Germānī suās cōpiās castrīs ēdūxērunt (B. G. 1.51) , the Germans led their troops out of the camp.

To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pronouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns (§ 343. a):— domus mea, my house. [Not domus meī .]

pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostrī .]

patrimōnium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tuī .]

Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see § 348 . a. The Interrogative Possessive cûius , -a , -um , occurs in poetry and early Latin: as,— cûium pecus (Ecl. 3.1) , whose flock? The genitive cûius is generally used instead.

The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of:— [petere] ut suā clēmentiā ac mānsuētūdine ūtātur (B. G. 2.14) , they asked (they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.

īgnōrantī quem portum petat nūllus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71.3) , to him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).

tempore tuō pūgnāstī; (Liv. 38.45.10), did you fight at a fit time?

This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possessive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally.

The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) when they are plainly implied in the context:— socium fraudāvit, he cheated his partner. [ socium suum would be distinctive, his partner (and not another's); suum socium , emphatic, his own partner.]

Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are often used substantively to denote some special class or relation:— nostrī, our countrymen, or men of our party.

suōs continēbat (B. G. 1.15) , he held his men in check.

flamma extrēma meōrum (Aen. 2.431) , last flames of my countrymen.

Sullānī, the veterans of Sulla's army; Pompêiānī, the partisans of Pompey.

There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see § 288 ).

A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun:— meā sōlīus causā; (Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only.

in nostrō omnium flētū; (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all.

ex Anniānā Milōnis domō; (Att. 4.3.3), out of Annius Milo's house. [Equivalent to ex Annī Milōnis domō .]

nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.

suum ipsīus rēgnum, his own kingdom.

For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus , see §§ 299, 300.

Relative Pronouns

A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest construction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers: as,iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locīs esse Germānōs audiēbat (B. G. 4.7) , he began to march into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is commonly omitted.

The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.

Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time:—

As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as, —eīquī Alesiae obsīdēbantur (B. G. 7.77) , those who were besieged at Alesia.

As Connectives: as,—T. Balventius, quī superiōre annō prīmum pīlum dūxerat (id. 5.35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.

When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as,quae cum ita sint (=et cum ea ita sint), [and] since this is so.

The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinating and the later connective force were acquired by quī at such an early period that the steps of the process cannot now be traced.

A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Antecedent of the relative.

Thus, in the sentence— eum nihil dēlectābat quod fās esset (Mil. 43) , nothing pleased him which was right,

the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fās esset , indicating a relation between the two.

A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands:— ea diēs quam cōnstituerat vēnit (B. G. 1.8) , that day which he had appointed came.

pontem quī erat ad Genāvam iubet rescindī; (id. 1.7), he orders the bridge which was near Geneva to be cut down.

Aduatucī, dē quibus suprā dīximus, domum revertērunt (id. 2.29), the Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.

This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form: as, quālis , quantus , quīcumque , etc.

If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§§ 286, 287):— fīlium et fīliam, quōs valdē dīlēxit, unō tempore āmīsit, he lost at the same time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.

grandēs nātū mātrēs et parvulī līberī, quōrum utrōrumque aetās misericor, diam nostram requīrit (Verr. 5.129) , aged matrons and little children, whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.

ōtium atque dīvitiae, quae prīma mortālēs putant (Sall. Cat. 36), idleness and wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire).

eae frūgēs et frūctūs quōs terra gignit (N. D. 2.37) , those fruits and crops which the earth produces.

For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see § 316. a.

A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. § 296. a):— mare etiam quem Neptūnum esse dīcēbās (N. D. 3.52) , the sea, too, which you said was Neptune. [Not quod .]

Thēbae ipsae, quod Boeōtiae caput est (Liv. 42.44) , even Thebes, which is the chief city of Bœotia. [Not quae .]

This rule is occasionally violated: as, —flūmen quod appellātur Tamesis (B. G. 5.11) , a river which is called the Thames.

A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by attraction):— sī aliquid agā eōrum quōrum cōnsuēstī; (Fam. 5.14), if you should do something of what you are used to do. [For eōrum quae .]

Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative:— urbem quam statuō vestra est (Aen. 1.573) , the city which I am founding is yours. Naucratem , quem convenīre voluī, in nāvī nōn erat (Pl. Am. 1009) , Naucrates , whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.

A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent:— quārtum genus ... quī in vetere aere aliēnō vacillant (Cat. 2.21) , a fourth class, who are staggering under old debts.

ūnus ex eō numerō quī parātī erant (Iug. 35) , one of the number [of those] who were ready.

coniūrāvēre paucī, dē quā [i.e. coniūrātiōne] dīcam (Sall. Cat. 18), a few have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak.

So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun: as, nostra ācta , quōs tyrannōs vocās (Vat. 29) , the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants. [Here quōs agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra .]

Antecedent of the Relative

The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses, but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is wholly omitted.

The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause:— locī nātūra erat haec quem locum nostrī dēlēgerant (B. G. 2.18) , the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.

The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative in case:— quās rēs in cōnsulātū nostrō gessimus attigit hīc versibus (Arch. 28) , he has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.

quae prīma innocentis mihi dēfēnsiō est oblāta suscēpī; (Sull. 92), I undertook the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.

In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. § 308 . d ) and a lemonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause:— quae pars cīvitātis calamitātem populō Rōmānō intulerat, ea prīnceps poenās persolvit (B. G. 1.12) , that part of the state which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.

quae grātia currum fuit vīvīs, eadem sequitur (Aen. 6.653) , the same pleasure that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death).

quī fit ut nēmō, quam sibi sortem ratiō dederit, illā contentus vīvat (cf. Hor. S. 1.1.1), how does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice has assigned him?

The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite:— quī decimae legiōnis aquilam ferēbat (B. G. 4.25) , [the man] who bore the eagle of the tenth legion.

quī cōgnōscerent mīsit (id. 1.21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.

The phrase id quod or quae rēs may be used (instead of quod alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea:— [obtrectātum est] Gabīniō dīcam anne Pompêiō? an utrīque—id quod est vērius? (Manil. 57), an affront has been offered—shall I say to Gabinius or to Pompey? or—which is truer—to both?

multum sunt in vēnātiōnibus, quae rēs vīrēs alit (B. G. 4.1) , they spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.

But quod alone often occurs: as,—Cassius noster , quod mihi māgnae voluptātī fuit , hostem rêiēcerat (Fam. 2.10) , our friend Cassius—which was a great satisfaction to me—had driven back the enemy.

The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause:— fīrmī [amīcī], cûius generis est māgna pēnūria (Lael. 62) , steadfast friends, a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).

A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause:— vāsa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum vīderat (Verr. 4.63) , those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]

Special Uses of the Relative

In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be observed:—

The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English:— liber quem mihi dedistī, the book you gave me.

is sum quī semper fuī, I am the same man I always was.

eō in locō est dē quō tibi locūtus sum, he is in the place I told you of.

When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative conjunction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a demonstrative in the last:— erat profectus obviam legiōnibus Macedonicīs quattuor, quās sibi conciliāre pecūniā cōgitābat eāsque ad urbem addūcere (Fam. 12.23.2) , he had set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city.

A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other construction in English,—particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a noun of agency:— lēgēs quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).

Caesar quī Galliam vīcit, Cæsar the conqueror of Gaul.

iūsta glōria quī est frūctus virtūtis (Pison. 57) , true glory [which is] the fruit of virtue.

ille quī petit, the plaintiff (he who sues).

quī legit, a reader (one who reads).

In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. § 307. b):— quae pars cīvitātis Helvētiae īnsīgnem calamitātem populō Rōmānō intulerat, ea prīnceps poenās persolvit (B. G. 1.12) , the portion of the Helvetian state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.

In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause: as, ille quī cōnsultē cavet , diūtinē ūtī bene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240), he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained.

The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such:— quae vestra prūdentia est (Cael. 45) , such is your wisdom. [Equivalent to prō vestrā prūdentiā .]

audīssēs cōmoedōs vel lēctōrem vel lyristēn, vel, quae mea līberālitās, omnēs (Plin. Ep. 1.15) , you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a lyre-player, or—such is my liberality—to all of them.

A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the sentence or clause that precedes:— Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi convēnit (B. G. 3.14) , Cæsar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come together, etc.

quae quī audiēbant, and those who heard this (which things).

quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.

quōrum quod simile factum (Cat. 4.13) , what deed of theirs like this?

quō cum vēnisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).

This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrogative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative, with or without and.

A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal relative pronoun:—

mortuus Cūmīs quō sē contulerat (Liv. 2.21) , having died at Cumœ, whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quās.]

locus quō aditus nōn erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access.

rēgna unde genus dūcis (Aen. 5.801) , the kingdom from which you derive your race.

unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded).

The relatives quī , quālis , quantus , quot , etc. are often rendered simply by as in English:— idem quod semper, the same as always.

cum esset tālis quālem tē esse videō; (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I see you are.

tanta dīmicātiō quanta numquam fuit (Att. 7.1.2) , such a fight as never was before.

tot mala quot sīdera (Ov. Tr. 1.5.47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.

The general construction of relatives is found in clauses introduced by relative adverbs: as, ubi , quō , unde , cum , quārē .

Indefinite Pronouns

The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what one.

Quis , quispiam , aliquis , quīdam , are particular indefinites, meaning some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite, and quīdam, a certain one, most definite; aliquis and quispiam, some one, stand between the two:— dīxerit quis ( quispiam ), some one may say.

aliquī philosophī ita putant, some philosophers think so. [ quīdam would mean certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]

habitant hīc quaedam mulierēs pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647) , some poor women live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be aliquae or nesciō quae ].

The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations sī quis, if any; nisi quis, if any ... not; nē quis, lest any, in order that none; num quis ( ecquis ), whether any; and in relative clauses.

The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of quis after sī , nisi , nē , and num , and are rather more emphatic:— quid sī hōc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875) , what if some god had desired this?

nisi alicui suōrum negōtium daret (Nep. Dion. 8.2), unless he should employ some one of his friends.

cavēbat Pompêius omnia, nē aliquid vōs timērētis (Mil. 66) , Pompey took every precaution, so that you might have no fear.

In a particular negative aliquis ( aliquī ), some one (some), is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one, or ūllus, any, would be required:— iūstitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. 1.50) , justice never does harm to anybody. [ alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it.]

nōn sine aliquō metū, not without some fear. But,sine ūllō metū, without any fear.

cum aliquid nōn habeās (Tusc. 1.88) , when there is something you have not.

The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and quisquam ( ūllus ) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is expressed or suggested:— sī quisquam, ille sapiēns fuit (Lael. 9) , if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.

dum praesidia ūlla fuērunt (Rosc. Am. 126) , while there were any armed forces.

sī quid in tē peccāvī; (Att. 3.15.4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any particular case (see § 310）].

Quīvīs or quīlibet (any one you will), quisquam , and the corresponding adjective ūllus, any at all, are general indefinites.

Quīvīs and quīlibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and ūllus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or suggested:— nōn cuivīs hominī contingit adīre Corinthum (Hor. Ep. 1.17.36) , it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth. [ nōn cuiquam would mean not any man's.]

quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. 2.132) , anybody you will, provided it be somebody.

sī quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. 6.14.1) , if any man is timorous, I am he.

sī tempus est ūllum iūre hominis necandī; (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion whatever when homicide is justifiable.

The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.

The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and ūnus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions:— bonus liber melior est quisque quō mâior (Plin. Ep. 1.20.4) , the larger a good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.).

ambō exercitūs suās quisque abeunt domōs (Liv. 2.7.1) , both armies go away, every man to his home.

uterque utrīque erat exercitus in cōnspectū; (B. G. 7.35), each army was in sight of the other (each to each).

pōnite ante oculōs ūnum quemque rēgum (Par. 1.11) , set before your eyes each of the kings.

Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one:— quō quisque est sollertior, hōc docet īrācundius (Rosc. Com. 31) , the keenerwitted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.

Quisque is generally postpositive That is, it does not stand first in its clause. : as, suum cuique, to every man his own.

Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal numerals:— nōbilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their nobility). As, in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you take it.

prīmō quōque tempore (Rosc. Am. 36) , at the very first opportunity.

antīquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. 1.45) , the most ancient times.

decimus quisque (id. 5.52), one in ten.

Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion: as, —sapientissimus quisque aequissimō animō moritur (Cat. M. 83) , the wisest men die with the greatest equanimity. Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a disparaging sense ( how few ):— quotus enim quisque disertus? quotus quisque iūris perītus est (Planc. 62) , for how few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law!

quotus enim istud quisque fēcisset (Lig. 26) , for how many would have done this? [i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].

Nēmō, no one, is used of persons only—

As a substantive:— nēminemaccūsat, he accuses no one.

As an adjective pronoun instead of nūllus :— virnēmō bonus (Legg. 2.41) , no good man.

Even when used as a substantive, nēmō may take a noun in apposition: as,— nēmō scrīptor , nobody [who is] a writer.

Nūllus, no, is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of nēmō , and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a substantive:— nūllum mittitur tēlum (B. C. 2.13) , not a missile is thrown.

nūllō hoste prohibente (B. G. 3.6) , without opposition from the enemy.

nūllīus īnsector calamitātem (Phil. 2.98) , I persecute the misfortune of no one.

nūllō adiuvante (id. 10.4), with the help of no one (no one helping).

nūllī erant praedōnēs (Flacc. 28) , there were no pirates.

nūllī eximentur (Pison. 94) , none shall be taken away.

For nōn nēmō , nōn nūllus ( nōn nūllī ), see § 326. a.

Alius and Alter

Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; cēterī and reliquī, all the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two:— proptereā quod aliud iter habērent nūllum (B. G. 1.7) , because (as they said) they had no other way.

ūnī epistulae respondī, veniō ad alteram (Fam. 2.17.6) , one letter I have answered, I come to the other.

alterum genus (Cat. 2.19) , the second class.

iēcissem ipse mē potius in profundum ut cēterōs cōnservārem (Sest. 45) , I should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.

Servīlius cōnsul, reliquīque magistrātūs (B. C. 3.21) , Servilius the consul and the rest of the magistrates.

cum sit necesse alterum utrum vincere (Fam. 6.3) , since it must be that one of the two should prevail.

Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly:— dum nē sit tē dītior alter (Hor. S. 1.1.40) , so long as another is not richer than you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered).

nōn ut magis alter, amīcus (id. 1.5.33), a friend such that no other is more so.

The expressions alter ... alter, the one ... the other, alius ... alius, one ... another, may be used in pairs to denote either division of a group or reciprocity of action:— alterī dīmicant, alterī victōrem timent (Fam. 6.3) , one party fights, the other fears the victor.

alteram alterī praesidiō esse iusserat (B. C. 3.89) , he had ordered each (of the two legions) to support the other.

aliī gladiīs adoriuntur, aliī fragmentīs saeptōrum (Sest. 79) , some make an attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings.

alius ex aliō causam quaerit (B. G. 6.37) , they ask each other the reason.

alius alium percontāmur (Pl. Stich. 370) , we keep asking each other.

Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another (the other) of the objects referred to:— alter cōnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.

aliud est maledīcere, aliud accūsāre (Cael. 6) , it is one thing to slander, another to accuse.

Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses briefly a double statement:— alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks another thing).

iussit aliōs alibī fodere (Liv. 44.33) , he ordered different persons to dig in different places.

aliī aliō locō resistēbant (B. C. 2.39) , some halted in one place, some in another.

VERBS

Agreement of Verb and Subject

A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person:—

silent lēgēs inter arma (Mil. 11) , the laws are dumb in time of war.

In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number (§ 286 ):— ōrātiō est habita, the plea was delivered. bellum exortum est, a war arose.

A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the expressed or implied antecedent:— adsum quī fēcī (Aen. 9.427) , here am I who did it.

tū, quī scīs, omnem dīligentiam adhibēbis (Att. 5.2.3) , you, who know, will use all diligence.

vidēte quam dēspiciāmur omnēs quī sumus ē mūnicipiīs (Phil. 3.15) , see how all of us are scorned who are from the free towns.

A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verbform in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun:— amantium īrae amōris integrātiō est (Ter. And. 555) , the quarrels of lovers are the renewal of love.

nōn omnis error stultitia dīcenda est (Div. 2.90) , not every error should be called folly.

Corinthus lūmen Graeciae exstīnctum est (cf. Manil. 11), Corinth, the light of Greece, is put out.

Double or Collective Subject

Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural: pater et avus mortuī sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.

So rarely (by synesis , § 280 . a ) when to a singular subject is attached an ablative with cum : as, dux cum aliquot prīncipibus capiuntur (Liv. 21.60) , the general and several leading men are taken.

When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third:— sī tū et Tullia valētis ego et Cicerō valēmus (Fam. 14.5) , if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]

In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for predicate adjectives (see § 287 . 2-4).

If the subjects are connected by disjunctives (§ 223. a), or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular:— quem neque fidēs neque iūs iūrandum neque illum misericordia repressit (Ter. Ad. 306) , not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him.

senātus populusque Rōmānus intellegit (Fam. 5.8) , the Roman senate and people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habitī essēmus (id. 11.20), neither Cæsar nor I should have been considered.]

fāma et vīta innocentis dēfenditur (Rosc. Am. 15) , the reputation and life of an innocent man are defended.

est in eō virtūs et probitās et summum officium summaque observantia (Fam. 13.28A. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense of duty, and the greatest devotion.

So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.

When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often agrees with one and is understood with the others:— intercēdit M. Antōnius Q. Cassius tribūnī plēbis (B. C. 1.2) , Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.

hōc mihi et Peripatēticī et vetus Acadēmia concēdit (Acad. 2.113) , this both the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.

A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular; but the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are thought of (§ 280. a):— (1) senātus haec intellegit (Cat. 1.2) , the senate is aware of this.

ad hīberna exercitus redit (Liv. 21.22) , the army returns to winter-quarters.

plēbēs ā patribus sēcessit (Sall. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.

(2) pars praedās agēbant (Iug. 32) , a part brought in booty.

cum tanta multitūdō lapidēs conicerent (B. G. 2.6) , when such a crowd were throwing stones.

The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as, equitātum omnem ... quem habēbat praemittit , quī videant (B. G. 1.15) , he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see). The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes used collectively to denote a group: as, Poenus , the Carthaginians; mīles , the soldiery; eques , the cavalry.

Quisque, each, and ūnus quisque, every single one, have very often a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. § 282. a):— sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (Pl. Curc. 180) , let every one keep his own (let them keep every man his own).

So also uterque , each ( of two ), and the reciprocal phrases alius ... alium alter ... alterum (§ 315 . a ).

Omission of Subject or Verb

The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted:—

A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic:— loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak.

An indefinite subject is often omitted:—crēderēs, you would have supposed; putāmus, we (people) think; dīcunt , ferunt , perhibent, they say.

A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject expressed or understood (§ 208. d):— diū atque ācriter pūgnātum est (B. G. 1.26) , they fought long and vigorously.

The verb is sometimes omitted:—

Dīcō , faciō , agō, and other common verbs are often omitted in familiar phrases:— quōrsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at?

ex ungue leōnem [cōgnōscēs], you will know a lion by his claw.

quid multa, what need of many words? (why should I say much?)

quid? quod, what of this, that ... ? (what shall I say of this, that ... ?) [A form of transition.]

Aeolus haec contrā; (Aen. 1.76), Æolus thus [spoke] in reply.

tum Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta.

dī meliōra [duint]! (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better things)!

unde [venīs] et quō [tendis]? (Hor. S. 2.4.1), where from and whither bound? [Cf. id. 1.9.62for the full form.]

The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub junctive:— tū coniūnx (Aen. 4.113) , you [are] his wife.

quid ergō? audācissimus ego ex omnibus (Rosc. Am. 2) , what then? am I the boldest of all?

omnia praeclāra rāra (Lael. 79) , all the best things are rare.

potest incidere saepe contentiō et comparātiō dē duōbus honestīs utrum honestius (Off. 1.152) , there may often occur a comparison of two honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any copula were expressed, it would be sit , but the direct question would be complete without any.]

accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. 6.136) , hear what is first to be accomplished. [Direct: quae peragenda prius ?]

PARTICLES

Adverbs

The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs: as,—celeriter īre, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name ( adverbium , from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see § 241. b). They also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested: as, splendidē mendāx, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs: as, nimis graviter, too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see § 20. g. N.). For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see §§ 214 - 217 .

Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs.

A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 308. g):— eō [ = in ea] impōnit vāsa (Iug. 75) , upon them (thither, thereon, on the beasts) he puts the camp-utensils.

eō mīlitēs impōnere (B. G. 1.42) , to put soldiers upon them (the horses).

apud eōs quō [ = ad quōs] sē contulit (Verr. 4.38) , among those to whom (whither) he resorted.

quī eum necāsset unde [ = quō] ipse nātus esset (Rosc. Am. 71) , one who should have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).

ō condiciōnēs miserās administrandārum prōvinciārum ubi [ = in quibus] sevēritās perīculōsa est (Flacc. 87) , O! wretched terms of managing the provinces, where strictness is dangerous.

The participles dictum and factum , when used as nouns, are regularly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives; so occasionally other perfect participles:— praeclārē facta (Nep. Timoth. 1) , glorious deeds (things gloriously done).

multa facētē dicta (Off. 1.104) , many witty sayings.

A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modified by an adverb:— victor exercitus, the victorious army.

admodum puer, quite a boy (young).

magis vir, more of a man (more manly).

populum lātē rēgem (Aen. 1.21) , a people ruling far and wide.

Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force bat which contain a verbal idea:— hinc abitiō; (Plaut. Rud. 503), a going away from here.

quid cōgitem dē obviarr itiōne (Att. 13.50) , what I think about going to meet (him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.]

A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are obviam , palam , sometimes contrā , and occasionally others:— fit obviam Clōdiō; (Mil. 29), he falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius. [Cf. the adjective obvius : as,sī ille obvius eī futūrus nōn erat (id. 47), if he was not likely to fall in with him.]

haec commemorō quae sunt palam (Pison. 11) , I mention these facts, which are well-known.

alia probābilia, contrā alia dīcimus (Off. 2.7) , we call some things probable, others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contrā contradicts a previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]

erī semper lēnitās (Ter. And. 175) , my master's constant (always) gentleness. [An imitation of a Greek construction.]

In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in c above).

For propius , prīdiē , palam , and other adverbs used as prepositions, see § 432.

The following adverbs require special notice:—

Etiam ( et iam ), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it:— nōn verbīs sōlum sed etiam vī; (Verr. 2.64), not only by words, but also by force.

hōc quoque maleficium (Rosc. Am. 117) , this crime too.

Nunc For † num-ce ; cf. tunc (for † tum-ce ). means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is rarely used of the immediate past.

Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With negatives iam means (no) longer.

Tum, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum (†tum-ce, cf. nunc):— ut iam anteā dīxī, as I have already said before.

sī iam satis aetātis atque rōboris habēret (Rosc. Am. 149) , if he had attained a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by).

nōn est iam lēnitātī locus, there is no longer room for mercy.

quod iam erat īnstitūtum, which had come to be a practice (had now been established).

nunc quidem dēlēta est, tunc flōrēbat (Lael. 13) , now ('t is true) she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory.

tum cum rēgnābat, at the time when he reigned.

Certō means certainly, certē (usually) at least, at any rate:— certō sciō, I know for a certainty; ego certē, I at least.

Prīmum means first (first in order, or for the first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Prīmō means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time:— hōc prīmum sentiō, this I hold in the first place.

aedīs prīmō ruere rēbāmur, at first we thought the house was falling.

In enumerations, prīmum (or prīmō ) is often followed by deinde , secondly , in the next place , or by tum , then , or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times repeated ( secondly , thirdly , etc.). The series is often closed by dēnique or postrēmō , lastly , finally. Thus, prīmum dē genere bellī , deinde dē māgnitūdine , tum dē imperātōre dēligendō (Manil. 6) , first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander.

Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed , autem , etc.:— hōc quidem vidēre licet (Lael. 54) , THIS surely one may see. [Emphatic.]

[sēcūritās] speciē quidem blanda, sed reāpse multīs locīs repudianda (id. 47), (tranquillity) in appearance, it is true, attractive, but in reality to be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.]

Nē ... quidem means not even or not ... either. The emphatic word or words must stand between nē and quidem :— sed nē Iugurtha quidem quiētus erat (Iug. 51) , but Jugurtha was not quiet either.

ego autem nē īrāscī possum quidem iīs quōs valdē amō; (Att. 2.19.1), but I cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.

Equidem has the same senses as quidem , but is in Cicero confined to the first person. Thus, — equidem adprobābō (Fam. 2.3.2) , I for my part shall approve.

CONJUNCTIONS

For the classification of conjunctions, see §§ 223 , 224.

Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood that precedes them:— scrīptum senātuī et populō; (Cat. 3.10), written to the senate and people.

ut eās [partīs] sānārēs et cōnfīrmārēs (Mil. 68) , that you might cure and strengthen those parts.

neque meā prūdentiā neque hūmānīs cōnsiliīs frētus (Cat. 2.29) , relying neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom.

Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi） also commonly connect similar constructions:— hīs igitur quam physicīs potius crēdendum exīstimās (Div. 2.37) , do you think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers?

hominem callidiōrem vīdī nēminem quam Phormiōnem (Ter. Ph. 591) , a shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. § 407).

ut nōn omne vīnum sīc nōn omnis nātūra vetustāte coacēscit (Cat. M. 65) , as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.

in mē quasi in tyrannum (Phil. 14.15) , against me as against a tyrant.

Two or more coördinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, § 601. c): omnēs dī, hominēs, all gods and men.

summī, mediī, īnfimī, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.

iūra, lēgēs, agrōs, lībertātem nōbīs relīquērunt (B. G. 7.77) , they have left us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.

Where there are more than two coördinate words etc., a conjunction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first):— aut aere aliēnōaut māgnitūdine tribūtōrum autiniūriā potentiōrum (B. G. 6.13) , by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the powerful.

at sunt mōrōsī etanxiī etīrācundī etdifficilēs senēs (Cat. M. 65) , but (you say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy.

But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups themselves express the conjunction (or omit it):— propudium illud et portentum, L. Antōnius īnsīgne odium omnium hominum (Phil. 14.8) , that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomination of all men.

utrumque ēgit graviter, auctōritāte etoffēnsiōne animī nōn acerbā; (Lael. 77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and with no bitterness of feeling.

The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a series, even when there is no grouping apparent:— vōce voltū mōtūque (Brut. 110) , by voice, expression, and gesture.

cūram cōnsilium vigilantiamque (Phil. 7.20) , care, wisdom, and vigilance.

quōrum auctōritātem dīgnitātem voluntātemque dēfenderās (Fam. 1.7.2) , whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.

Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly connected by a conjunction:— multae et gravēs causae, many weighty reasons.

vir līber aç fortis (Rep. 2.34) , a free and brave man.

Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coördinate clauses: et ... et (-que ... -que), both ... and.

aut ... aut, either ... or.

vel ... vel, either ... or. [Examples in § 324. e.]

sīve ( seu ) ... sīve ( seu ), whether ... or. [Examples in § 324. f.]

Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force:— nunc ... nunc , tum ... tum, iam ... iam, now ... now.

modo ... modo, now ... now.

simul ... simul, at the same time ... at the same time.

quā ... quā, now ... now, both ... and, alike [this] and [that].

modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714) , now he says yes, now no.

simul grātiās agit, simul grātulātur (Q. C. 6.7.15) , he thanks him and at the same time congratulates him.

ērumpunt saepe vitia amīcōrum tum in ipsōs amīcōs tum in aliēnōs (Lael. 76) , the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends themselves, now against strangers.

quā marīs quā fēminās (Pl. Mil. 1113), both males and females.

Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla tively as conjunctions:— ut (rel.) ... ita , sīc (dem.), as (while) ... so (yet).

tam (dem.) ... quam (rel.), so (as) ... as.

cum (rel.) ... tum (dem.), while ... so also; not only ... but also.

The following Conjunctions require notice:—

Et, and, simply connects words or clauses; -que combines more closely into one connected whole. -que is always enclitic to the word connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected: cum coniugibus et līberīs, with [their] wives and children.

ferrō īgnī que, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.]

aquā et īgnī interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal formula, where they are considered separately.]

Atque ( ac ), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable:— omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too, without the slightest distinction).

ūsus atque disciplīna, practice and theory beside (the more important or less expected).

atque ego crēdō, and yet I believe (for my part).

Atque ( ac ), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of comparison and likeness:— simul atque, as soon as.

nōn secus (nōn aliter) ac sī, not otherwise than if.

prō eō ac dēbuī, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought).

aequē ac tū, as much as you.

haud minus ac iussī faciunt, they do just as they are ordered.

For and not, see § 328. a.

Sed and the more emphatic vērum or vērō, but, are used to introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives (not this ... but something else). At (old form ast ) introduces with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense.

Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atquī, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod sī, but if, and if, now if, is used to continue an argument. Et , -que , and atque ( ac ) are sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest but , especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause continuing the same thought: as, —impetum hostēs ferre nōn potuērunt ac terga vertērunt (B. G. 4.35) , the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.

Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of volō ) and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction is not always observed:— sed quis ego sum aut quae est in mē facultās (Lael. 17) , but who am I or what special capacity have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]

aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. 5.118) , let him drink or (if he won't do that, then let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.]

vīta tālis fuit vel fortūnā vel glōriā; (Lael. 12), his life was such either in respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it).

sī propinquōs habeant imbēcilliōrēs vel animō vel fortūnā; (id. 70), if they have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect, for example, or in both).

aut deōrum aut rēgum fīliī; (id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.]

implicātī vel ūsū diūturnō vel etiam officiīs (id. 85), entangled either by close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might exclude the first.]

Sīve ( seu ) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either ... or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two names for the same thing:— sīve inrīdēns sīve quod ita putāret (De Or. 1.91) , either laughingly or because he really thought so.

sīve deae seu sint volucrēs (Aen. 3.262) , whether they (the Harpies) are goddesses or birds.

Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with no alternative force: as,—vel minimus, the very least.

Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim (for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you) and its negative neque enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof. （ea vīta) quae est sōla vīta nōminanda. nam dum sumus inclūsī in hīs compāgibus corporis, mūnere quōdam necessitātis et gravī opere perfungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life) which alone deserves to be called life; for so long as we are confined by the body's frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy task. For the soul is from heaven.

hārum trium sententiārum nūllī prōrsus adsentior. nec enim illa prīma vēra est (Lael. 57) , for of course that first one is n't true.

Ergō, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergō and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcircō, for this reason, on this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, sī, ut, nē), and refers to the special point introduced by the correlative. malum mihi vidētur esse mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. certē. ergō et eī quibus ēvēnit iam ut morerentur et eī quibus ēventūrum est miserī. mihi ita vidētur. nēmō ergō nōn miser. (Tusc. 1.9.) Death seems to me to be an evil. ‘It is wretched, then, since it is an evil.’ Certainly. ‘Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are wretched.’ So it appears to me. ‘There is no one, therefore, who is not wretched.’

quia nātūra mūtārī nōn potest, idcircō vērae amīcitiae sempiternae sunt (Lael. 32) , because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friendships are eternal.

Autem , enim , and vērō are postpositive That is, they do not stand first in their clause. ; so generally igitur and often tamen .

Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what precedes: as, at vērō >, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque ergō, accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim, for, you see, for of course (§ 324. h).

For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.

Negative Particles

For a list of Negative Particles see § 217 . e.

In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points are to be observed:—

Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative:— nēmō nōn audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear).

nōn possum nōn cōnfitērī; (Fam. 9.14.1), I must confess.

ut ... nē nōn timēre quidem sine aliquō timōre possīmus (Mil. 2) , so that we cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear.

Many compounds or phrases of which nōn is the first part express an indefinite affirmative:— nōn nūllus, some; nōn nūllī; (=aliquī), some few.

nōn nihil (=aliquid), something.

nōn nēmō; (=aliquot), sundry persons.

nōn numquam (=aliquotiēns), sometimes.

Two negatives of which the second is nōn (belonging to the predicate) express a universal affirmative:— nēmō nōn, nūllus nōn, nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. nōn nēmō, not nobody, i.e. somebody.]

nihil nōn, everything. [Cf. nōn nihil, something.]

numquam nōn, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. nōn numquam, sometimes.]

A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary (Litotes, § 641):— nōn semel (=saepissimē), often enough (not once only).

nōn haec sine nūmine dīvom ēveniunt (Aen. 2.777) , these things do not occur without the will of the gods.

haec nōn nimis exquīrō; (Att. 7.18.3), not very much, i.e. very little.

Compare nōn nūllus , nōn nēmō , etc., in a above.

A general negation is not destroyed—

By a following nē ... quidem, not even, or nōn modo, not only:— numquam tūnōn modo ōtium, sed nē bellumquidem nisi nefārium concupīstī; (Cat. 1.25), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never desired any war except one which was infamous.

By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordinate member:— eaque nesciēbant nec ubi nec quālia essent (Tusc. 3.4) , they knew not where or of what kind these things were.

By neque introducing a coördinate member:— nequeō satis mīrārīneque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547) , I cannot wonder enough nor conjecture.

The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions:— nūllī ( neutrī ) crēdō (not nōn crēdō ūllī ), I do not believe either (I believe neither).

sine ūllō perīculō; (less commonly cum nūllō ), with no danger (without any danger).

nihil umquam audīvī iūcundius, I never heard anything more amusing.

Cf. negō haec esse vēra (not dīcō nōn esse ), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.)

In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly expressed by neque ( nec ), not by et nōn :— hostēs terga vertērunt, neque prius fugere dēstitērunt (B. G. 1.53) , the enemy turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.

Similarly nec quisquam is regularly used for et nēmō ; neque ūllus for et nūllus ; nec umquam for et numquam ; nēve ( neu ), for et nē .

The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of a preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but, nay rather):— causa igitur nōn bona est? immo optima (Att. 9.7.4) , is the cause then not a good one? on the contrary, the best.

Minus, less (especially with sī, if, quō, in order that), and minimē, least, often have a negative force:— sī minus possunt, if they cannot. [For quō minus, see § 558. b.]

audācissimus ego ex omnibus? minimē (Rosc. Am. 2) , am I the boldest of them all? by no means (not at all).

QUESTIONS

Forms of Interrogation

Questions are either Direct or Indirect.

A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker:—

An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like:— rogāvit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct: quid est, what is it?]

nesciō ubi sim, I know not where I am. [Direct: ubi sum, where am I?]

Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in English. For a list of Interrogative Particles, see § 217 . d. The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether , or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunctive (§ 574 ).

A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word:— tūne id veritus es (Q. Fr. 1.3.1) , did you fear that?

hīcine vir usquam nisi in patriā moriētur (Mil. 104) , shall this man die anywhere but in his native land?

is tibi mortemne vidētur aut dolōrem timēre (Tusc. 5.88) , does he seem to you to fear death or pain?

The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted:— patēre tua cōnsilia nōn sentīs (Cat. 1.1) , do you not see that your schemes are manifest? (you do not see, eh?)

In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.

When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nōnne , an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer:— nōnne animadvertis (N. D. 3.89) , do you not observe?

num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 107) , there is no doubt, is there?

In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means simply whether.

The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nōnne :— meministīne mē in senātū dīcere (Cat. 1.7) , don't you remember my saying in the Senate?

rēctēne interpretor sententiam tuam (Tusc. 3.37) , do I not rightly interpret your meaning?

This was evidently the original meaning of -ne ; but in most cases the negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no? shades off into eh? The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as, utrumne , whether? anne , or; quantane (Hor. S. 2.3.317) , how big? quōne malō ( id . 2.3.295), by what curse?

A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb as in English (§ 152):— quid exspectās (Cat. 2.18) , what are you looking forward to?

quō igitur haec spectant (Fam. 6.6.11) , whither then is all this tending?

Īcare, ubi es (Ov. M. 8.232) , Icarus, where are you?

quod vectīgal vōbīs tūtum fuit? quem socium dēfendistis? cui praesidiō classibus vestrīs fuistis? (Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you? what ally have you defended? whom have you guarded with your fleets?

A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of the voice: as,— quālis vir erat! what a man he was!

quot calamitātēs passī sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered!

quō studiō cōnsentiunt (Cat. 4.15) , with what zeal they unite!

The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis:— quisnam est, pray who is it? [ quis tandem est ? would be stronger.]

ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. 1.9) , where in the world are we?

in quā tandem urbe hōc disputant (Mil. 7) , in what city, pray, do they maintain this?

NOTE—Tandem is sometimes added to verbs:— ain tandem (Fam. 9.21) , you don't say so! (say you so, pray?)

itane tandem uxōrem dūxit Antiphō; (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho's got married.

Double Questions

A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.

In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, whether, stands in the first member; an, anne, or, annōn, necne, or not, in the second; and usually an in the third, if there be one:—

utrum nescīs, an prō nihilō id putās (Fam. 10.26) , is it that you don't know, or do you think nothing of it?

vōsne L. Domitium an vōs Domitius dēseruit (B. C. 2.32) , did you desert Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert you?

quaerō servōsne an līberōs (Rosc. Am. 74) , I ask whether slaves or free.

utrum hostem an vōs an fortūnam utrīusque populī īgnōrātis (Liv. 21.10) , is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you do not know?

Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect questions it is commoner than annōn . In poetry -ne ... -ne sometimes occurs.

The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second:— Gabīniō dīcam anne Pompêiō an utrīque (Manil. 57) , shall I say to Gabinius, or to Pompey, or to both?

sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. 3.41) , are these your words or not?

quaesīvī ā Catilīnā in conventū apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. 2.13) , I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Laeca's or not.

Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an ( anne ) alone asks the question,—usually with indignation or surprise:— an tū miserōs putās illōs (Tusc. 1.13) , what! do you think those men wretched?

an iste umquam dē sē bonam spem habuisset, nisi dē vōbīs malam opīniōnem animō imbibisset (Verr. 1.1.42) , would he ever have had good hopes about himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you?

Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum may ask a question to which there is no alternative:— utrum est in clārissimīs cīvibus is, quem ... (Flacc. 45) , is he among the noblest citizens, whom, etc.?

The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative questions:— utrum ... an ... an

utrum ... annōn ( necne , see § 335. N.)

---- ... an ( anne ）

-ne ... an

---- ... -ne, necne

-ne ... necne

-ne ... -ne

From double ( alternative ) questions must be distinguished those which are in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel ( -ve ). Thus, —quaerō num iniūstē aut improbē fēcerit (Off. 3.54) , I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did.

Question and Answer

There is no one Latin word in common use meaning simply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with nōn or a similar negative:— valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).

eratne tēcum, was he with you? nōn erat, no (he was not).

num quidnam novī? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sānē, oh! nothing.

An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is sometimes used to answer a direct question:—

For YES:—

sānē, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc.

certē, certainly, unquestionably, etc.

factum, true, it's a fact, you're right, etc. (lit., it was done).

For NO:—

nōn, not so.

nūllō modō, by no means.

minimē, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. § 329. a).

minimē vērō, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.

nōn quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc.

nōn hercle vērō, why, gracious, no! (certainly not, by Hercules!)

Examples are:—

quidnam? an laudātiōnēs? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so.

aut etiam autnōn respondēre (Acad. 2.104) , to answer (categorically) yes or no.

estne ut fertur forma? sānē (Ter. Eun. 361) , is she as handsome as they say she is? (is her beauty as it is said?) oh! yes.

miser ergō Archelāus?certē sī iniūstus (Tusc. 5.35) , was Archelaus wretched then? certainly, if he was unjust.

an haec contemnitis? minimē (De Or. 2.295) , do you despise these things? not at all.

volucribusne et ferīs?minimē vērō (Tusc. 1.104) , to the birds and beasts? why, of course not.

ex tuī animī sententiā tū uxōrem habēs? nōn hercle, ex meī animī sententiā; (De Or. 2.260), Lord! no, etc.

In answering a double question, one member of the alternative, or some part of it, must be repeated:—

vīdistī an dē audītō nūntiās?—egomet vīdī; (Plaut. Merc. 902), did you see it or are you repeating something you have heard?—I saw it myself.

CONSTRUCTION OF CASES

The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of uninflected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems, by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing; fidi-cen-, playing on the lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages.

Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instrumental were lost Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote). except in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.

The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (§ 38. a), perhaps never had a suffix of its own. The e-vocative of the second declension is a form of the stem (§ 45 . c ). The Accusative, most frequently formed by the suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see § 386).

The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have had no single primitive meaning; and the same may be true of the Dative.

The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, WITH), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however, have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (§ 421). To indicate the case-relations—especially those of place—more precisely, Prepositions (originally adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see § 36, phonetic decay), and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by caseforms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition, and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, §§ 402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, § 421 ff.)

The word cāsus, case, is a translation of the Greek ptw=sis, a falling away (from the erect position). The term ptw=sis was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (§ 35. g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called o)rqh/, erect ( cāsus rēctus ). The later name Nominative ( cāsus nōminātīvus ) is from nōminō , and means the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive ( cāsus genetīvus ) is a translation of genikh/ [ptw=sis], from ge/nos (class), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative ( cāsus datīvus , from dō ) is translated from dotikh/, and means the case of giving. Accusative ( accūsātīvus , from accūsō ) is a mistranslation of ai)tiatikh/ (the case of causing), from ai)ti/a, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative ( vocātīvus , from vocō) is translated from klhtikh/ (the case of calling). The name Ablative ( ablātīvus , from ablātus, auferō) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost.

NOMINATIVE CASE

The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative:— Caesar Rhēnum trānsīre dēcrēverat (B. G. 4.17) , Cæsar had determined to cross the Rhine.

For the omission of a pronominal subject, see § 295. a.

The nominative may be used in exclamations:—

ēn dextra fidēsque (Aen. 4.597) , lo, the faith and plighted word!

ecce tuae litterae dē Varrōne (Att. 13.16) , lo and behold, your letters aoout Varro!

But the accusative is more common (§ 397 . d ).

VOCATIVE CASE

The Vocative is the case of direct address:— Tiberīne pater, tē, sāncte, precor (Liv. 2.10) , O father Tiber, thee, holy one, I pray.

rēs omnis mihi tēcum erit, Hortēnsī (Verr. 1.33) , my whole attention will be devoted to you, Hortensius.

A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative:— audī tū, populus Albānus (Liv. 1.24) , hear, thou people of Alba.

The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person:— quō moritūre ruis (Aen. 10.811) , whither art thou rushing to thy doom?

cēnsōrem trabeāte salūtās (Pers. 3.29) , robed you salute the censor.

The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte estō ( virtūte ), success attend your (valor):— iubērem tē macte virtūte esse (Liv. 2.12) , I should bid you go on and prosper in your valor.

macte novā virtūte puer (Aen. 9.641) , success attend your valor, boy!

As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.

GENITIVE CASE

The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases.

The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows:—

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS

A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.

This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the preposition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case:— librī Cicerōnis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero's books.

inimīcī Caesaris, Cæsar's enemies, or the enemies of Cæsar.

talentum aurī, a talent of gold.

vir summae virtūtis, a man of the greatest courage.

But observe the following equivalents:— vacātiō labōris, a respite FROM toil.

petītiō cōnsulātūs, candidacy FOR the consulship.

rēgnum cīvitātis, royal power OVER the state.

Possessive Genitive

The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs:— Alexandrī canis, Alexander's dog.

potentia Pompêī (Sall. Cat. 19), Pompey's power.

Ariovistī mors (B. G. 5.29) , the death of Ariovistus.

perditōrum temeritās (Mil. 22) , the recklessness of desperate men.

The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alexander's dog ） or author (as in Cicero's writings ), or (2) the person or thing that possesses some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the bridge , Catiline's evil deeds ). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective Genitive; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, § 347 ). The noun limited is understood in a few expressions:— ad Castoris [aedēs] (Quinct. 17) , at the [temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. Paul's.]

Flaccus Claudī, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.

Hectoris Andromachē; (Aen. 3.319), Hector's [wife] Andromache.

For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective is often used,—regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns (§ 302. a):— liber meus, my book. [Not liber meī .]

aliēna perīcula, other men's dangers. [But also aliōrum .]

Sullāna tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae .]

The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive):— haec domus est patris meī, this house is my father's.

iam mē Pompêī tōtum esse scīs (Fam. 2.13) , you know I am now all for Pompey (all Pompey's).

summa laus et tua et Brūtī est (Fam. 12.4.2) , the highest praise is due both to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's).

compendī facere, to save (make of saving).

lucrī facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit).

These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in § 343 that a predicate noun bears to an appositive (§§ 282 , 283).

An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited by a genitive in the predicate:— neque suī iūdicī [erat] discernere (B. C. 1.35) , nor was it for his judgment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).

cûiusvīs hominis est errāre (Phil. 12.5) , it is any man's [liability] to err.

negāvit mōris esse Graecōrum, ut in convīviō virōrum accumberent mulierēs (Verr. 2.1.66) , he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.

sed timidī est optāre necem (Ov. M. 4.115) , but't is the coward's part to wish for death.

stultī erat spērāre, suādēre impudentis (Phil. 2.23) , it was folly (the part of a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge.

sapientis est pauca loquī, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little. [Not sapiēns (neuter） est, etc.]

This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples). A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun:— mentīrī nōn est meum [not meī ], it is not for me to lie.

hūmānum [for hominis ] est errāre, it is man's nature to err (to err is human).

A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition (Appositional Genitive) (§ 282):— nōmen īnsāniae (for nōmen īnsānia ), the word madness.

oppidum Antiochīae (for oppidum Antiochīa , the regular form), the city of Antioch.

Genitive of Material

The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (cf. § 403):—

Genitive of Quality

The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective:— vir summae virtūtis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtūtis .]

māgnae est dēlīberātiōnis, it is an affair of great deliberation.

māgnī formīca labōris (Hor. S. 1.1.33) , the ant [a creature] of great toil.

ille autem suī iūdicī (Nep. Att. 9) , but he [a man] of independent (his own) judgment.

Compare Ablative of Quality (§ 415 ). In expressions of quality, the genitive or the ablative may often be used indifferently: as, praestantī prūdentiā vir , a man of surpassing wisdom; maximī animī homō , a man of the greatest courage. In classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the ablative; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with êius , and to nouns modified by māgnus , maximus , summus , or tantus . In general the Genitive is used rather of essential , the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.

The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases êius modī , cûius modī (equivalent to tālis, such; quālis, of what sort):— êius modī sunt tempestātēs cōnsecūtae, utī; (B. G. 3.29), such storms followed, that, etc.

The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define measures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure):— fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth].

mūrus sēdecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high].

For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see § 417.

Partitive Genitive

Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs.

Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are—

Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below):— pars mīlitum, part of the soldiers. quis nostrum, which of us?

nihil erat reliquī, there was nothing left.

nēmō eōrum (B. G. 7.66) , not a man of them.

māgnam partemeōruminterfēcērunt (id. 2.23), they killed a large part of them.

Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like alius , alter , nūllus , etc.:— ūnus tribūnōrum, one of the tribunes (see c below).

sapientum octāvus (Hor. S. 2.3.296) , the eighth of the wise men.

mīliapassuum sescenta (B. G. 4.3) , six hundred miles (thousands of paces).

mâior frātrum, the elder of the brothers.

animāliumfortiōra, the stronger [of] animals.

Suēbōrum gēns est longē maxima et bellicōsissimaGermānōrum omnium (B. G. 4.1) , the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of all the Germans.

alter cōnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.

nūlla eārum (B.G. 4.28) , not one of them (the ships).

Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns:— tantum spatī, so much [of] space.

aliquid nummōrum, a few pence (something of coins).

id locī (or locōrum ), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time (§ 397. a).

plāna urbis, the level parts of the town.

quid novī, what news? (what of new?)

paulum frūmentī (B. C. 1.78) , a little grain.

plūs dolōris (B. G. 1.20) , more grief.

suī aliquid timōris (B. C. 2.29) , some fear of his own (something of his own fear).

In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a partitive genitive, except multum , tantum , quantum , and similar words. The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used partitively: nihil novī (genitive), nothing new; but, nihil memorābile (nominative), nothing worth mention (not nihil memorābilis ).

Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place:— parum ōtī, not much ease (too little of ease).

satis pecūniae, money enough (enough of money).

plūrimumtōtīus Galliae equitātū valet (B. G. 5.3) , is strongest of all Gaul in cavalry.

ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. 1.9) , where in the world are we (where of nations)?

ubicumqueterrārum et gentium (Verr. 5.143) , wherever in the whole world.

rēs erat eō iamlocī ut (Sest. 68) , the business had now reached such a point that, etc.

eō miseriārum (Iug. 14.3) , to that [pitch] of misery.

inde locī, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]

The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case:— sequimur tē, sāncte deōrum (Aen. 4.576) , we follow thee, O holy deity. [For sāncte deus (§ 49. g. N.)]

nigrae lānārum (Plin. H. N. 8.193) , black wools. [For nigrae lānae .]

expedītī mīlitum (Liv. 30.9) , light-armed soldiers. [For expedītī mīlitēs .]

hominum cūnctōs (Ov. M. 4.631) , all men. [For cūnctōs hominēs; cf. e.]

Cardinal numerals (except mīlia ) regularly take the Ablative with ē ( ex ) or dē instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quīdam, a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally:— ūnus ex tribūnīs, one of the tribunes. [But also, ūnus tribūnōrum (cf. a. 2).]

minumus ex illīs (Iug. 11) , the youngest of them.

medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.

quīdam ex mīlitibus, certain of the soldiers.

ūnus dē multīs (Fin. 2.66) , one of the many.

paucī dē nostrīs cadunt (B. G. 1.15) , a few of our men fall.

hominem dē comitibus meīs, a man of my companions.

Uterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns take a partitive genitive:— uterque cōnsul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us.

ūnus quisque vestrum, each one of you.

utraque castra, both camps.

Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of:— nōs omnēs, all of us (we all). [Not omnēs nostrum .]

quot sunt hostēs, how many of the enemy are there?

cavē inimīcōs, quī multī sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many.

multī mīlitēs, many of the soldiers.

nēmō Rōmānus, not one Roman.

Objective Genitive

The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the Object:—

The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive pronoun or other derivative adjective:— mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf. odium meī (Har. Resp. 5) , hatred of me.]

laudātor meus (Att. 1.16.5) , my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostrī laudātor (id. 1.14.6).]

Clōdiānum crīmen (Mil. 72) , the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As we say, the Nathan murder.]

metus hostīlis (Iug. 41) , fear of the enemy (hostile fear).

ea quae faciēbat, tuā sē fīdūciā facere dīcēbat (Verr. 5.176) , what he was doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance).

neque neglegentiā tuā, neque id odiō fēcit tuō (Ter. Ph. 1016) , he did this neither from neglect nor from hatred of you.

Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited by another genitive:— animī multārum rērum percursiō; (Tusc. 4.31), the mind's traversing of many things.

A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objective genitive:— odium in Antōnium (Fam. 10.5.3) , hate of Antony.

merita ergā mē (id. 1.1.1), services to me.

meam in tē pietātem (id. 1.9.1), my devotion to you.

impetus in urbem (Phil. 12.29) , an attack on the city.

excessus ē vītā (Fin. 3.60) , departure from life. [Also, excessus vītae , Tusc. 1.27.]

adoptiō in Domitium (Tac. Ann. 12.25) , the adoption of Domitius. [A late and bold extension of this construction.]

So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. § 366 . b ): as, — longō bellō māteria (Tac. H. 1.89) , resources for a long war.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES

Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the Objective Genitive.

Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive:— avidī laudis (Manil. 7) , greedy of praise.

fastīdiōsus litterārum, disdaining letters.

iūris perītus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, iūre , cf. § 418.]

memorem vestrī, oblītum suī (Cat. 4.19) , mindful of you, forgetful of himself.

ratiōnis et ōrātiōnis expertēs (Off. 1.50) , devoid of sense and speech.

nostrae cōnsuētūdinis imperītī; (B. G. 4.22), unacquainted with our customs.

plēnus fideī, full of good faith.

omnis speī egēnam (Tac. Ann. 1.53) , destitute of all hope.

tempestātum potentem (Aen. 1.80) , having sway over the storms.

impotēns īrae (Liv. 29.9.9) , ungovernable in anger.

coniūrātiōnis participēs (Cat. 3.14) , sharing in the conspiracy.

affīnis reī capitālis (Verr. 2.2.94) , involved in a capital crime.

īnsōns culpae (Liv. 22.49) , innocent of guilt.

Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a particular act:— sī quem tuī amantiōrem cōgnōvistī; (Q. Fr. 1.1.15), if you have become acquainted with any one more fond of you.

multitūdō īnsolēns bellī (B. C. 2.36) , a crowd unused to war.

erat Iugurtha appetēns glōriae mīlitāris (Iug. 7) , Jugurtha was eager for military glory.

Participles in -ns , when used as participles , take the case regularly governed by the verb to which they belong: as,—Sp. Maelium rēgnum appetentem interēmit ( Cat. M. 56 ), he put to death Spurius Mælius , who was aspiring to royal power. Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1) even when they express a disposition or character: as, virtūs quam aliī ipsam temperantiam dīcunt esse , aliī obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptīs et eam subsequentem (Tusc. 4.30) , observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.

Verbals in -āx (§ 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later Latin:— iūstum et tenācem prōpositī virum (Hor. Od. 3.3) , a man just and steadfast to his purpose.

circus capāx populī (Ov. A. A. 1.136) , a circus big enough to hold the people.

cibī vīnīque capācissimus (Liv. 9.16.13) , a very great eater and drinker (very able to contain food and wine).

The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists (Genitive of Specification):— callidus reī mīlitāris (Tac. H. 2.32) , skilled in soldiership.

pauper aquae (Hor. Od. 3.30.11) , scant of water.

nōtus animī paternī (id. 2.2.6), famed for a paternal spirit.

fessī rērum (Aen. 1.178) , weary of toil.

integer vītae scelerisque pūrus (Hor. Od. 1.22.1) , upright in life, and unstained by guilt.

The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with adjectives requiring an object of reference (§ 349 ). Thus callidus denotes knowledge; pauper , want; pūrus , innocence; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a.

For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see § 418. For Adjectives of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see § 385. c. For Adjectives with animī (locative in origin), see § 358.

GENITIVE WITH VERBS

Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting

Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object:—

Meminī takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaintances, or of things which one has experienced.

So oblīvīscor in the opposite sense,—to forget literally, to lose all memory of a thing (very rarely, of a person). Cinnam meminī; (Phil. 5.17), I remember Cinna.

utinam avum tuum meminissēs (id. 1.34), oh! that you could remember your grandfather! (but he died before you were born).

Postumium, cûius statuam in Isthmō meminisse tē dīcis (Att. 13.32) , Postumius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.

omnia meminit Sīron Epicūrī dogmata (Acad. 2.106) , Siron remembers all the doctrines of Epicurus.

multa ab aliīs audīta meminērunt (De Or. 2.355) , they remember many things that they have heard from others.

tōtam causam oblītus est (Brut. 217) , he forgot the whole case.

hinc iam oblīvīscere Grâiōs (Aen. 2.148) , from henceforth forget the Greeks (i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if you had never known them).

Meminī takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something (often with special interest or warmth of feeling).

So oblīvīscor in the opposite sense,—to disregard, or dismiss from the mind,—and the adjective oblītus, careless or regardless. ipse suī meminerat (Verr. 2.2.136) , he was mindful of himself (of his own interests).

faciam ut hûius locī diei que mei que semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I will make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live.

nec mē meminisse pigēbit Elissae, dum memor ipse meī; (Aen. 4.335), nor shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.

meminerint verēcundiae (Off. 1.122) , let them cherish modesty.

hūmānae īnfīrmitātis meminī; (Liv. 30.31.6), I remember human weakness.

oblīvīscī temporum meōrum, meminisse āctiōnum (Fam. 1.9.8) , to disregard my own interests, to be mindful of the matters at issue.

nec tamen Epicūrī licet oblīvīscī; (Fin. 5.3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus.

oblīvīscere caedis atque incendiōrum (Cat. 1.6) , turn your mind from slaughter and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts).

With both meminī and oblīvīscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are regularly in the Genitive; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regularly in the Accusative; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above). Meminī in the sense of mention takes the Genitive: as, eundem Achillam cûius suprā meminimus (B. C. 3.108) , that same Achillas whom I mentioned above.

Reminīscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense of call to mind, recollect; the Genitive in the more figurative sense of be mindful of:— dulcīs moriēns reminīscitur Argōs (Aen. 10.782) , as he dies he calls to mind his beloved Argos.

reminīscerētur et veteris incommodī populī Rōmānī et prīstinae virtūtis Helvētiōrum (B. G. 1.13) , let him remember both the former discomfiture of the Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning,— let him bear it in mind (and beware)!]

Recordor, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative:— recordāre cōnsēnsum illum theātrī; (Phil. 1.30), recall that unanimous agreement of the [audience in the] theatre.

recordāminī omnīs cīvīlīs dissēnsiōnēs (Cat. 3.24) , call to mind all the civil wars.

Recordor takes the genitive once ( Pison. 12 ); it is never used with a personal object, but may be followed by dē with the ablative of the person or thing (cf. § 351 . N.):— dē tē recordor (Scaur. 49) , I remember about you.

dē illīs (lacrimīs) recordor (Planc. 104) , I am reminded of those tears.

Verbs of Reminding

Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 390. c).

So admoneō , commoneō , commonefaciō , commonefīō. But moneō with the genitive is found in late writers only. Catilīna admonēbat alium egestātis, alium cupiditātis suae (Sall. Cat. 21), Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity.

eōs hōc moneō; (Cat. 2.20), I give them this warning.

quod vōs lēx commonet (Verr. 3.40) , that which the law reminds you of.

All these verbs often take dē with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them:— saepius tē admoneō dē syngraphā Sittiānā; (Fam. 8.4.5) I remind you again and again of Sittius's bond.

officium vostrum ut vōs malō cōgātis commonērier (Plaut. Ps. 150), that you may by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty.

Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting

Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty:— arguit mē furtī, he accuses me of theft.

pecūlātūs damnātus (pecūniae pūblicae damnātus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for embezzlement.

videō nōn tē absolūtum esse improbitātis, sed illōs damnātōs esse caedis (Verr. 2.1.72) , I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that they were condemned for homicide.

Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are— capitis , as in damnāre capitis, to sentence to death.

mâiestātis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state).

repetundārum [rērum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).

vōtī damnātus (or reus ), bound [to the payment] of one's vow, i.e. successful in one's effort.

pecūniae (damnāre, iūdicāre, see note).

duplī etc., as in duplī condemnāre, condemn to pay twofold.

The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecūniae damnāre (Gel. 20.1.38) , to condemn to pay money , in a case of injury to the person; quantae pecūniae iūdicātī essent ( id .xx.1.47), how much money they were adjudged to pay , in a mere suit for debt; cōnfessī aeris ac dēbitī iūdicātī ( id .xx.1. 42), adjudged to owe an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion between crime and penalty (cf. Eng. guilty of death ). It is quite unnecessary to assume an ellipsis of crīmine or iūdiciō .

Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are—

The Ablative of Price: regularly of a definite amount of fine, and often of indefinite penalties (cf. § 416):— Frusinātēstertiā parteagrī damnātī; (Liv. 10.1), the people of Frusino condemned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.

The Ablative with dē , or the Accusative with inter , in idiomatie expressions:— dē aleā, for gambling; dē ambitū, for bribery.

dē pecūniīs repetundīs, of extortion (cf. § 352. a).

inter sīcāriōs (Rosc. Am. 90) , as an assassin (among the assassins).

dē vī et mâiestātis damnātī; (Phil. 1.21), convicted of assault and treason.

The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the penalty: as,— ad mortem (Tac. Ann. 16.21) , to death; ad ( in ) metalla , to the mines.

Verbs of Feeling

Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object which excites the feeling.

Verbs of pity, as misereor and miserēscō , take the genitive:— miserēminī familiae, iūdicēs, miserēminī patris, miserēminī fīlī (Flacc. 106) , have pity on the family, etc.

miserēre animī nōn dīgna ferentis (Aen. 2.144) , pity a soul that endures unworthy things.

miserēscite rēgis (id. 8.573), pity the king. [Poetical.]

But miseror , commiseror , bewail , take the accusative: as, —commūnem condiciōnem miserārī (Mur. 55) , bewail the common lot.

As impersonals, miseret , paenitet , piget , pudet , taedet (or pertaesum est ), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative of the person affected:— quōs īnfāmiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. 1.35) , who are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.

mē miseret parietum ipsōrum (Phil. 2.69) , I pity the very walls.

mē cīvitātis mōrum piget taedetque (Iug. 4) , I am sick and tired of the ways of the state.

decemvirōrum vōs pertaesum est (Liv. 3.67) , you became tired of the decemvirs.

With miseret , paenitet , etc., the cause of the feeling may be expressed by an infinitive or a clause:— neque mē paenitet mortālīs inimīcitiās habēre (Rab. Post. 32) , nor am I sorry to have deadly enmities.

nōn dedisse istunc pudet; mē quia nōn accēpī piget (Pl. Pseud. 282), he is ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.

Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as subject: as, —nōn tē haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754) , do not these things shame you?

Interest and Rēfert

The impersonals interest and rēfert take the Genitive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected.

The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause:— Clōdī intererat Milōnem perīre (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that Milo should die.

aliquid quod illōrum magis quam suā rētulisse vidērētur (Iug. 111) , something which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.

videō enim quid meā intersit, quid utrīusque nostrum (Fam. 7.23.4) , for 1 see what is for my good and for the good of us both.

Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the corresponding possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest or rēfert :— quid tuā id rēfert? māgnī; (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much. [See also the last two examples above.]

vehementer intererat vestrā quī patrēs estis (Plin. Ep. 4.13.4) , it would be very much to your advantage, you who are fathers.

This is the only construction with rēfert in classic prose, except in one passage in Sallust (see example above).

The accusative with ad is used with interest and rēfert to express the thing with reference to which one is interested:— māgnī ad honōrem nostrum interest (Fam. 16.1) , it is of great consequence to our honor.

rēfert etiam ad frūctūs (Varr. R. R. 1.16.6) , it makes a difference as to the crop.

Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with rēfert ) by the dative (probably a popular corruption):— quid id ad mē aut ad meam rem rēfert (Pl. Per. 513) , what difference does that make to me or to my interests?

quid rēferat intrā nātūrae fīnīs vīventī (Hor. S. 1.1.49) , what difference does it make to me who live within the limits of natural desire?

nōn rēferre dēdecorī (Tac. Anu. 15.65), that it makes no difference as to the disgrace.

The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb, or an adverbial accusative.

Verbs of Plenty and Want

Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the genitive (cf. § 409. a. N.):— convīvium vīcīnōrum compleō; (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.

implentur veteris Bacchī pinguisque ferīnae (Aen. 1.215) , they fill themselves with old wine and fat venison.

nē quis auxilī egeat (B. G. 6.11) , lest any require aid.

quid est quod dēfēnsiōnis indigeat (Rosc. Am. 34) , what is there that needs defence?

quae ad cōnsōlandum mâiōris ingenī et ad ferendum singulāris virtūtis indigent (Fam. 6.4.2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.

Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see §§ 409 . a , 01), except egeō , which takes either case, and indigeō . But the genitive is by a Greek idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separation and want (cf. § 357 . b. 3):— abstinētō īrārum (Hor. Od. 3.27.69) , refrain from wrath.

operum solūtīs (id. 3.17.16), free from toils.

dēsine mollium querellārum (id. 2.9.17), have done with weak complaints.

Genitive with Special Verbs

The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.

The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase potīrī rērum, to be master of affairs:— illīus rēgnī potīrī; (Fam. 1.7.5), to become master of that kingdom.

Cleanthēs sōlem dominārī et rērum potīrī putat (Acad. 2.126) , Cleanthes thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe.

But potior usually takes the ablative (see § 410 ).

Some other verbs rarely take the genitive—

By analogy with those mentioned in § 354:— neque hûius sīs veritus fēminaeprīmāriae (Ter. Ph. 971) , and you had no respect for this high-born lady.

As akin to adjectives which take the genitive:— fastīdit meī (Plaut. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastīdiōsus.]

studet tuī (quoted N. D. 3.72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiōsus.]

In imitation of the Greek:— iūstitiaene prius mīrer, bellīne labōrum (Aen. 11.126) , shall I rather admire his justice or his toils in war?

neque ille sēpositīciceris nec longae invīdit avēnae (Hor. S. 2.6.84) , nor did he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.]

labōrum dēcipitur (Hor. Od. 2.13.38) , he is beguiled of his woes.

mēlabōrum levās (Pl. Rud. 247) , you relieve me of my troubles.

The apparent Genitive animī (really Locative) is used with a few verbs and adjectives of feeling and the like:—

Antiphō mē excruciat animī (Ter. Ph. 187) , Antipho tortures my mind (me in my mind).

quī pendet animī (Tusc. 4.35) , who is in suspense.

mē animīfallit (Lucr. 1.922) , my mind deceives me.

So, by analogy, dēsipiēbam mentis (Pl. Epid. 138) , I was out of my head.

aeger animī, sick at heart; cōnfūsus animī, disturbed in spirit.

sānus mentis aut animī (Pl. Trin. 454) , sound in mind or heart.

PECULIAR GENITIVES

Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following:—

A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation of the Greek (Genitive of Exclamation):—

dī immortālēs,mercimōnīlepidī; (Pl. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charming bargain!

foederis heu tacitī; (Prop. 4.7.21), alas for the unspoken agreement!

The genitive is often used with the ablatives causā , grātiā, for the sake of; ergō, because of; and the indeclinable īnstar, like; also with prīdiē, the day before; postrīdiē, the day after; tenus, as far as:

honōris causā, with due respect (for the sake of honor).

verbīgrātiā, for example.

êius lēgisergō, on account of this law.

equus īnstar montis (Aen. 2.15) , a horse huge as a mountain (the image of a mountain).

laterum tenus (id. 10.210), as far as the sides.

Of these the genitive with causā is a development from the possessive genitive and resembles that in nōmen īnsāniae (§ 343 . d ). The others are of various origin. In prose of the Republican Period prīdiē and postrīdiē are thus used only in the expressions prīdiē ( postrīdiē ) êius diēī , the day before ( after ) that (cf. “the eve, the morrow of that day”). Tacitus uses the construction with other words: as,— postrīdiē īnsidiārum , the day after the plot. For the accusative, see § 432 . a. Tenus takes also the ablative (p. 136).

DATIVE CASE

The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clāmor caelō , Aen. 5.451) are regarded as survivals of the original use.

In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings:—

The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit puerō librum, he gave the boy a book, or fēcit mihi iniūriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning (to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see § 367. a).

The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves (see § 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those implying an action.

These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasionally confounded, as in §§ 383, 384.

The uses of the Dative are the following:—

INDIRECT OBJECT

The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected by an action.

This is called the Indirect Object (§ 274). It is usually denoted in English by the objective with to:— cēdite temporī, yield to the occasion.

prōvincia Cicerōnī obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero.

inimīcīs nōn crēdimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.

INDIRECT OBJECT WITH TRANSITIVES

The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose meaning allows (see § 274):— dō tibi librum, I give you a book.

illud tibi affīrmō; (Fam. 1.7.5), this I assure you.

commendō tibi êius omnia negōtia (id. 1.3), I put all his affairs in your hands (commit them to you).

dabis profectō misericordiae quod īrācundiae negāvistī; (Deiot. 40), you will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.

litterās ā tē mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. 2.17) , your messenger delivered to me a letter from you.

Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone:— mihi id aurum crēdidit (cf. Plaut. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me.

equō nē crēdite (Aen. 2.48) , put not your trust in the horse.

concessit senātus postulātiōnī tuae (Mur. 47) , the senate yielded to your demand.

concēdere amīcīs quidquid velint (Lael. 38) , to grant to friends all they may wish.

Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative of the End of Motion (§§ 426, 427):—

Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion prevails:— litterās quāsad Pompêiumscrīpsī; (Att. 3.8.4), the letter which I have written [and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. nōn quō habērem quod tibiscrīberem (id. 4.4A), not that I had anything to write to you]

litterae extemplōRōmam scrīptae (Liv. 41.16) , a letter was immediately written [and sent] to Rome.

hostīs in fugam dat (B. G. 5.51) , he puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. ut mē dem fugae (Att. 7.23) , to take to flight.]

omnēs rem ad Pompêiumdēferrī volunt (Fam. 1.1) , all wish the matter to be put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).

On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in some other idea:— mihi litterās mittere (Fam. 7.12) , to send me a letter.

eum librum tibimīsī; (id. 7.19), I sent you that book.

nec quicquam quod nōnmihi Caesar dētulerit (id. 4.13), and nothing which Cæsar did not communicate to me.

cūrēs utmihi vehantur (id. 8.4.5), take care that they be conveyed to me.

cum aliusaliī subsidium ferrent (B. G. 2.26) , while one lent aid to another.

Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing Such are dōnō , impertiō , induō , exuō , adspergō , īnspergō , circumdō , and in poetry accingō , implicō , and similar verbs. :— dōnat corōnās suīs, he presents wreaths to his men; or,

dōnat suōs corōnīs, he presents his men with wreaths.

vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. 7.772) , to shake off the leash (from himself).

omnīs armīs exuit (B. G. 5.51) , he stripped them all of their arms.

Interdīcō , forbid , takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Ablative of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing:— aquā et īgnī alicui interdīcere, to forbid one the use of fire and water. [The regular formula for banishment.]

interdīxit histriōnibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7) , he forbade the actors [to appear on] the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors).

fēminīs (dat.) purpurae ūsū interdīcēmus (Liv. 34.7) , shall we forbid women the wearing of purple?

The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of preventing , protecting , and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative. Interclūdō and prohibeō sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose:— hīsce omnīs aditūs ad Sullam interclūdere (Rosc. Am. 110) , to shut these men off from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). [Cf. utī commeātū Caesarem interclūderet (B. G. 1.48) , to shut Cæsar off from supplies.]

hunc (oestrum) arcēbis pecorī (Georg. 3.154) , you shall keep this away from the flock. [Cf. illum arcuit Galliā (Phil. 5.37) , he excluded him from Gaul.]

sōlstitium pecorī dēfendite (Ecl. 7.47) , keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf. utī sē ā contumēliīs inimīcōrum dēfenderet (B. C. 1.22) , to defend himself from the slanders of his enemies.]

Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive:— nūntiābantur haec eadem Cūriōnī (B. C. 2.37) , these same things were announced to Curio. [Active: nūntiābant ( quīdam ) haec eadem Cūriōnī .]

nec docendī Caesaris propinquīs êius spatium datur, nec tribūnīs plēbis suī perīculī dēprecandī facultās tribuitur (id. 1.5), no time is given Cæsar's relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of the plebs to avert danger from themselves.

prōvinciae prīvātīs dēcernuntur (id. 1.6), provinces are voted to private citizens.

INDIRECT OBJECT WITH INTRANSITIVES

The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any Intransitive verb whose meaning allows:— cēdant arma togae (Phil. 2.20) , let arms give place to the gown.

Caesarī respondet, he replies to Cæsar.

Caesarī respondētur, a reply is given to Cæsar (Cæsar is replied to). [Cf. § 372.]

respondī maximīs crīminibus (Phil. 2.36) , I have answered the heaviest charges.

ut ita cuique ēveniat (id. 2.119), that it may so turn out to each.

Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, therefore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. § 362 . a ). Cēdō , yield , sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the Dative of the person: as, cēdere alicui possessiōne hortōrum (cf. Mil. 75 ), to give up to one the possession of a garden.

Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind of indirect object (cf. § 367. a. N.2):— auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuādeō ).

quis huic reī testis est (Quinct. 37) , who testifies (is witness) to this fact?

is fīnis populātiōnibus fuit (Liv. 2.30.9) , this put an end to the raids.

The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 367. d, 377):— lēgātus frātrī (Mur. 32) , a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his brother).

ministrī sceleribus (Tac. Ann. 6.36) , agents of crime. [Cf. sēditiōnis ministrī (id. 1.17), agents of sedition.]

miseriīs suīs remedium mortem exspectāre (Sall. Cat. 40), to look for death as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. sōlus meārum miseriārumst remedium (Ter. Ad. 294) .]

The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of § 367 . a. N.2 and § 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to which it serves as an indirect object.

Indirect Object with Special Verbs

Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, These include, among others, the following: adversor , cēdō , crēdō , faveō , fīdō , fgnōscō , imperō , indulgeō , invideō , īrāscor , minitor , noceō , parcō , pāreō , placeō , resistō , serviō , studeō , suādeō ( persuādeō ), suscēnseō , temperō ( obtemperō ). take the Dative:— cūr mihi invidēs, why do you envy me?

mihi parcit atque īgnōscit, he spares and pardons me.

īgnōsce patriō dolōrī (Liv. 3.48) , excuse a father's grief.

subvenī patriae, opitulāre conlēgae (Fam. 10.10.2) , come to the aid of your country, help your colleague.

mihi nōn displicet (Clu. 144) , it does not displease me.

nōn omnibus serviō; (Att. 13.49), I am not a servant to every man.

nōn parcam operae (Fam. 13.27) , I will spare no pains.

sīc mihi persuāsī; (Cat. M. 78), so I have persuaded myself.

mihi Fabius dēbēbit īgnōscere sī minus êius fāmae parcere vidēbor quam anteā cōnsuluī; (Tull. 3), Fabius will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it.

huic legiōnī Caesar cōnfīdēbat maximē; (B. G. 1.40.15), in this legion Cæsar trusted most.

In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. Thus: invidēre, to envy, is literally to look askance at; servīre is to be a slave to; suādēre is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to.

Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.

Such are iuvō , adiuvō, help; laedō, injure; iubeō, order; dēficiō, fail; dēlectō, please:— hīc pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculīs nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.]

Fīdō and cōnfīdō take also the Ablative (§ 431 ): as, multum nātūrā locī cōnfīdēbant (B. G. 3.9) , they had great confidence in the strength of their position. Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of similar meaning. Such are—praestō esse , be on hand (cf. adesse ); mōrem gerere , humor (cf. mōrigerārī ); grātum facere , do a favor (cf. grātificārī ); dictō audiēns esse , be obedient (cf. oboedīre ); cui fidem habēbat (B. G. 1.19) , in whom he had confidence (cf. cōnfīdēbat ).

So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are—bene (male, pulchrē, aegrē, etc.) esse, be well (ill, etc.) off; iniūriam facere, do injustice to; diem dīcere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere grātiās, express one's thanks; habēre grātiam, feel thankful; referre grātiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be necessary; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum (expēnsum) ferre (esse), credit (charge); honōrem habēre, to pay honor to.

Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.

Such are adūlor , aemulor , dēspērō , praestōlor , medeor :— adūlātus est Antōniō (Nep. Att. 8) , he flattered Antony.

adūlārī Nerōnem (Tac. Ann. 16.19) , to flatter Nero.

pācem nōn dēspērās (Att. 8.15.3) , you do not despair of peace.

salūtī dēspērāre vetuit (Clu. 68) , he forbade him to despair of safety.

Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning:— See the Lexicon under caveō , conveniō , cupiō , īnsistō , maneō , praevertō , recipiō , renūntiō , solvō , succēdō partī cīvium cōnsulunt (Off. 1.85) , they consult for a part of the citizens.

cum tē cōnsuluissem (Fam. 11.29) , when I had consulted you.

metuēns puerīs (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children.

nec metuunt deōs (Ter. Hec. 772) , they fear not even the gods. [So also timeō .]

prōspicite patriae (Cat. 4.3) , have regard for the state.

prōspicere sēdem senectūtī; (Liv. 4.49.14), to provide a habitation for old age. [So also prōvideō .]

A few verbal nouns (as īnsidiae, ambush; obtemperātiō, obedience) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs:— īnsidiae cōnsulī (Sall. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. īnsidior ).

obtemperātiō lēgibus (Legg. 1.42) , obedience to the laws (cf. obtemperō ).

sibi ipsī respōnsiō; (De Or. 3.207), an answer to himself (cf. respondeō ).

In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf. § 366 . a , b ).

The Dative is used—

With the impersonals libet ( lubet ), it pleases, and licet, it is allowed:— quod mihimaximē lubet (Fam. 1.8.3) , what most pleases me.

quasi tibi nōn licēret (id. 6.8), as if you were not permitted.

With verbs compounded with satis , bene , and male:— mihi ipse numquam satisfaciō; (Fam. 1.1), I never satisfy myself.

optimōvirō maledīcere (Deiot. 28) , to speak ill of a most excellent man.

pulchrum est benefacerereī pūblicae (Sall. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to benefit the state.

These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as such by the Romans. Thus, satis officiō meō , satis illōrum voluntātī quī ā mē hōc petīvērunt factum esse arbitrābor (Verr. 5.130) , I shall consider that enough has been done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me.

With grātificor , grātulor , nūbō , permittō , plaudō , probō , studeō , supplicō , excellō :— Pompêiōsē grātificārī putant (Fam. 1.1) , they suppose they are doing Pompey a service.

grātulor tibi, mī Balbe (id. 6.12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus.

tibi permittō respondēre (N. D. 3.4) , I give you leave to answer.

mihi plaudō ipse domī; (Hor. S. 1.1.66), I applaud myself at home.

cum inimīcī M. Fontêī vōbīs ac populō Rōmānō minentur, amīcī ac propinquī supplicent vōbīs (Font. 35) , while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatives are beseeching you.

Misceō and iungō sometimes take the dative (see § 413 . a. N.). Haereō usually takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as, —haerentem capitī corōnam (Hor. S. 1.10.49) , a wreath clinging to the head.

The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially with verbs of contending (§ 413. b):— contendis Homērō (Prop. 1.7.3) , you vie with Homer. [In prose: cum Homērō .]

placitōne etiam pūgnābis amōrī (Aen. 4.38) , will you struggle even against a love that pleases you?

tibi certat (Ecl. 5.8) , vies with you. [tēcum.]

differt sermōnī (Hor. S. 1.4.48) , differs from prose. [ ā sermōne , § 401.]

laterī abdidit ēnsem (Aen. 2.553) , buried the sword in his side. [ in latere , § 430.]

For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 428. h.

Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusative of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. § 362. a):— cui cum rēx crucem minārētur (Tusc. 1.102) , and when the king threatened him with the cross.

Crētēnsibus obsidēs imperāvīt (Manil. 35) , he exacted hostages of the Cretans.

omnia sibi īgnōscere (Vell. 2.30) , to pardon one's self everything.

Ascaniōne pater Rōmānās invidet arcēs (Aen. 4.234) , does the father envy Ascanius his Roman citadels? [With invideō this construction is poetic or late.]

With the passive voice this dative may be retained:— quī iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgērī aequum cēnset (Liv. 40.15.16) , who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a favor.

singulīs cēnsōribus dēnāriī trecentī imperātī sunt (Verr. 2.137) , three hundred denarii were exacted of each censor.

Scaevolae concessa est fācundiae virtūs (Quint. 12.3.9) , to Scaevola has been granted excellence in oratory.

Indirect Object with Compounds

Many verbs compounded with ao, ante , con, in, inter , ob , post, prae , prō , sub , super, and some with circum , admit the Dative of the indirect object:— neque enim adsentior eīs (Lael. 13) , for I do not agree with them.

quantum nātūra hominis pecudibus antecēdit (Off. 1.105) , so far as man's nature is superior to brutes.

sī sibi ipse cōnsentit (id. 1.5), if he is in accord with himself.

virtūtēs semper voluptātibus inhaerent (Fin. 1.68) , virtues are always connected with pleasures.

omnibus negōtiīs nōn interfuit sōlum sed praefuit (id. 1.6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.

tempestātī obsequī artis est (Fam. 1.9.21) , it is a point of skill to yield to the weather.

nec umquam succumbet inimīcīs (Deiot. 36) , and he will never yield to his foes.

cum et Brūtus cuilibet ducum praeferendus vidērētur et Vatīnius nūllī nōn esset postferendus (Vell. 2.69) , since Brutus seemed worthy of being put before any of the generals and Vatinius deserved to be put after all of them.

In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple verb remains.

Thus in convocat suōs, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperātōrem bellō, to put a man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an indirect object (see also b, §§ 371, 388. b). Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object: as, —nē offerāmus nōs perīculīs (Off. 1.83) , that we may not expose ourselves to perils. The construction of § 370 is not different in its nature from that of §§ 362 , 366, and 367; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.

Some compounds of ad , ante , ob , with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. § 388. b):— Such verbs are aggredior , adeō , antecēdō , anteeō , antegredior , conveniō , ineō , obeō , offendō , oppugnō , praecēdō , subeō nōs oppūgnat (Fam. 1.1) , he opposes us.

quis audeat bene comitātum aggredī; (Phil. 12.25), who would dare encounter a man well attended?

mūnus obīre (Lael. 7) , to attend to a duty.

The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative:— sī ille obvius eī futūrus nōn erat (Mil. 47) , if he was not intending to get in his way.

mihi obviam vēnistī; (Fam. 2.16.3), you came to meet me.

When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned in § 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition: inhaeret in visceribus (Tusc. 4.24) , it remains fixed in the vitals.

homine coniūnctō mēcum (Tull. 4) , a man united to me.

cum hōc concurrit ipse Eumenēs (Nep. Eum. 4.1) , with him Eumenes himself engages in combat (runs together).

inserite oculōs in cūriam (Font. 43) , fix your eyes on the senate-house.

īgnis quī est ob ōs offūsus (Tim. 14) , the fire which is diffused before the sight.

obicitur contrā istōrum impetūs Macedonia (Font. 44) , Macedonia is set to withstand their attacks. [Cf. sī quis vōbīs error obiectus (Caec. 5) , if any mistake has been caused you.]

in segetem flamma incidit (Aen. 2.304) , the fire falls upon the standing corn.

But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb.

Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used impersonally in the passive (§ 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. § 365): cui parcī potuit (Liv. 21.14) , who could be spared?

nōn modo nōn invidētur illī aetātī vērum etiam favētur (Off. 2.45) , that age (youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored.

temporī serviendum est (Fam. 9.7) , we must serve the exigency of the occasion.

In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found: as, —cūr invideor (Hor. A. P. 56) , why am I envied?

Dative of Possession

The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession:— est mihi domī pater (Ecl. 3.33) , I have a father at home (there is to me).

hominī cum deō similitūdō est (Legg. 1.25) , man has a likeness to God.

quibus opēs nūllae sunt (Sall. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth.

The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession: as,— liber est meus , the book is MINE (and no one's else): est mihi liber , I HAVE a book (among other things).

With nōmen est , and similar expressions, the name is often put in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the Nominative is also common:—

(1) cui Āfricānō fuit cōgnōmen (Liv. 25.2) , whose (to whom) surname was Africanus.

puerō ab inopiā Egeriō inditum nōmen (id. 1.34), the name Egerius was given the boy from his poverty.

(2) puerō nōmen est Mārcus, the boy's name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).

cui nōmen Arethūsa (Verr. 4.118) , [a fount] called Arethusa.

In early Latin the dative is usual; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the dative; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf. § 343 . d ): as,—Q. Metellō Macedonicī nōmen inditum est (Vell. 1.11) , to Quintus Metellus the name of Macedonicus was given.

Dēsum takes the dative; so occasionally absum (which regularly has the ablative):— hōc ūnum Caesarī dēfuit (B.G. 4.26) , this only was lacking to Cæsar.

quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. 1.48) , what can be wanting to him?

Dative of the Agent

The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to denote the person on whom the necessity rests:— haec vōbīs prōvincia est dēfendenda (Manil. 14) , this province is for you to defend (to be defended by you).

mihi est pūgnandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me: cf. mihi est liber, I have a book, § 373. N.).

This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 196). The Ablative of the Agent with ab (§ 405 ) is sometimes used with the Second Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger expression is desired:— quibus est ā vōbīs cōnsulendum (Manil. 6) , for whom you must consult. [Here two datives, quibus and vōbīs , would have been ambiguous.]

rem ab omnibus vōbīs prōvidendam (Rab. 4) , that the matter must be attended to by all of you. [The dative might mean for all of you.]

The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Possession or a development of the Dative of Reference (§ 376 ).

The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect participles (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with other parts of the verb:— mihi dēlīberātum et cōnstitūtum est (Leg. Agr. 1.25) , I have deliberated and resolved (it has been deliberated by me).

mihi rēs prōvīsa est (Verr. 4.91) , the matter has been provided for by me.

sīc dissimillimīs bēstiolīs commūniter cibus quaeritur (N. D. 2.123) , so by very different creatures food is sought in common.

The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers with almost any passive verb:— neque cernitur ūllī (Aen. 1.440) , nor is seen by any.

fēlīx est dicta sorōrī (Ov. Fast. 3.1.597), she was called happy by her sister.

Aelia Paetina Narcissō fovēbātur (Tac. Ann. 12.1) , Ælia Pœtina was favored by Narcissus.

The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used after videor, seem:— vidētur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me.

dīs aliter vīsum [est] (Aen. 2.428) , it seemed otherwise to the gods.

videor mihi perspicere ipsīus animum (Fam. 4.13.5) , I seem (to myself) to see the soul of the man himself.

The verb probāre , approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative of Reference (§ 376 ), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent:— haec sententia et illī et nōbīs probābātur (Fam. 1.7.5) , this view met both his approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me).

hōc cōnsilium plērīsque nōn probābātur (B. C. 1.72) , this plan was not approved by the majority. [But also, cōnsilium ā cūnctīs probābātur (id. 1.74).]

Dative of Reference

The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference).

The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage, Datīvus commodī aut incommodī . as denoting the person or thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed. tibi arās (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.

tuās rēs tibi habētō; (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula of divorce).

laudāvit mihi frātrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me; laudāvit frātrem meum would imply no such motive).

meritōs mactāvit honōrēs, taurum Neptūnō, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollō; (Aen. 3.118), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to thee, beautiful Apollo.

In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.

The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word:

iter Poenīs vel corporibus suīs obstruere (Cat. M. 75) , to block the march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the disadvantage of, etc.).

sē in cōnspectum nautīs dedit (Verr. 5.86) , he put himself in sight of the sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).

versātur mihi ante oculōs (id. 5.123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to me before the eyes).

The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined.

This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging, Datīvus iūdicantis but is merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used—

Of the mental point of view (in my opinion, according to me. etc.):— Platō mihiūnus īnstar est centum mīlium (Brut. 191) , in my opinion (to me) Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand.

erit ille mihi semper deus (Ecl. 1.7) , he will always be a god to me (in my regard).

quae est ista servitūs tam clārō hominī (Par. 41) , what is that slavery according to the view of this distinguished man?

Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative plural:— oppidum prīmum Thessaliae venientibus ab Ēpīrō; (B. C. 3.80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).

laevā parte sinum intrantī (Liv. 26.26) , on the left as you sail up the gulf (to one entering).

est urbeēgressīstumulus (Aen. 2.713) , there is, as you come out of the city, a mound (to those having come out).

The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by vōlēns , volēns (participles of nōlō , volō ), or by some similar word:— ut quibusque belluminvītīs autcupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. 1.59) , as each might receive the war reluctantly or gladly.

ut mīlitibuslabōs volentibus esset (Iug. 100) , that the soldiers might assume the task willingly.

The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations:— quō mihi fortūnam (Hor. Ep. 1.5.12) , of what use to me is fortune?

unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. 2.7.116) , where can I get a stone?

quō tibi, Tillī; (id. 1.6.24), what use for you, Tillius?

The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections: ei (hei) mihi (Aen. 2.274) , ah me!

vae victīs (Liv. 5.48) , woe to the conquered.

em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. § 380.]

To express FOR—meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf of —the ablative with prō is used:— prō patriā morī; (Hor. Od. 3.2.13), to die for one's country.

ego ībō prō tē (Plaut. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you.

Ethical Dative

The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated. Compare “I'll rhyme you so eight years together.”— As You Like It , 3.2.

This construction is called the Ethical Dative. Datīvus ēthicus . It is really a faded variety of the Dative of Reference. quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. 1.3.15) , pray what is Celsus doing?

suō sibi servit patrī; (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father.

at tibi repente venit mihi Canīnius (Fam. 9.2) , but, look you, of a sudden comes to me Caninius.

hem tibi talentum argentī; (Pl. Truc. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver.

quid tibi vīs, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself)?

Dative of Separation

Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 401).

Such are compounds of ab , dē , ex , and a few of ad :— aureum eī dētrāxit amiculum (N. D. 3.83) , he took from him his cloak of gold.

hunc mihi terrōrem ēripe (Cat. 1.18) , take from me this terror.

vītam adulēscentibus vīs aufert (Cat. M. 71) , violence deprives young men of life.

nihil enim tibi dētrāxit senātus (Fam. 1.5B), for the senate has taken nothing from you.

nec mihi hunc errōrem extorquērī volō; (Cat. M. 85), nor do I wish this error wrested from me.

The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It represents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative

The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a preposition—thus generally with names of things (§ 426. 1):— illum ex perīculō ēripuit (B. G. 4.12) , he dragged him out of danger.

Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb: as, — mihi praeda dē manibus ēripitur (Verr. 2.1.142) , the booty is wrested from my hands.

Dative of the Purpose or End

The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected.

This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in only a few constructions, as follows:—

The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of the person or thing affected:— reī pūblicaeclādī sunt (Iug. 85.43) , they are ruin to the state (they are for a disaster to the state).

māgnōūsuīnostrīs fuit (B. G. 4.25) , it was of great service to our men (to our men for great use).

tertiam aciem nostrīssubsidiō mīsit (id. 1.52), he sent the third line as a relief to our men.

suīssalūtī fuit (id. 7.50), he was the salvation of his men.

ēvēnit facile quod dīs cordīesset (Liv. 1.39) , that came to pass easily which was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).

This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double Dative construction. The verb is usually sum . The noun expressing the end for which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjective, except one of degree ( māgnus , minor , etc.), or by a genitive. The word frūgī used as an adjective is a dative of this kind:— cōgis mē dīcere inimīcum Frūgī (Font. 39) , you compel me to call my enemy Honest.

hominēs satis fortēs et plānē frūgī (Verr. 3.67) , men brave enough and thoroughly honest. Cf. erō frūgī bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468), I will be good for something. [See § 122. b.]

The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry :— locumcastrīs dēligit (B. G. 7.16) , he selects a site for a camp.

receptuī canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat).

receptuī sīgnum (Phil. 13.15) , the signal for retreat.

optāvit locum rēgnō (Aen. 3.109) , he chose a place for a kingdom.

locumīnsidiīscircumspectāre (Liv. 21.53) , to look about for a place for an ambush. [Cf. locumsēditiōnisquaerere (id. 3.46).]

For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see § 505. b.

Dative with Adjectives

The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or towards which it tends. The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.

The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites: Adjectives of this kind are accommodātus , aptus ; amīcus , inimīcus , īnfestus , invīsus , molestus ; idōneus , opportūnus , proprius ; ūtilis , inūtilis ; affīnis , fīnitimus , propinquus , vīcīnus ; pār , dispār , similis , dissimilis ; iūcundus , grātus ; nōtus , īgnōtus , and others. nihil est tam nātūrae aptum (Lael. 17) , nothing is so fitted to nature.

nihil difficile amantī putō; (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover.

castrīs idōneum locum dēlēgit (B. G. 1.49) , he selected a place suitable for a camp.

tribūnī nōbīs sunt amīcī; (Q. Fr. 1.2.16), the tribunes are friendly to us.

esse propitius potest nēminī (N. D. 1.124) , he can be gracious to nobody.

māgnīs autem virīs prosperae semper omnēs rēs (id. 2.167), but to great men everything is always favorable.

sēdēs huic nostrō nōn importūna sermōnī (De Or. 3.18) , a place not unsuitable for this conversation of ours.

cui fundō erat affīnis M. Tullius (Tull. 14) , to which estate Marcus Tullius was next neighbor.

convenienter nātūrae vīvere (Off. 3.13) , to live in accordance with nature (o(mologoume/nws th=| fu/sei).

So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with īdem : as, —invītum quī servat idem facit occīdentī (Hor. A. P. 467) , he who saves a man against his will does the same as one who kills him. Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque ( ac ), as. So also the adverbs aequē , pariter , similiter , etc. The pronoun īdem has regularly atque or a relative:— sī parem sapientiam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to his beauty (like as his beauty).

tē suspicor eīsdem rēbus quibus mē ipsum commovērī; (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are disturbed by the same things by which I am.

Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative might be expected:—

Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of persons:— aptus ad rem mīlitārem, fit for a soldier's duty.

locus ad īnsidiās aptior (Mil. 53) , a place fitter for lying in wait.

nōbīs ūtile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing.

Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the Accusative with in or ergā :— cōmis in uxōrem (Hor. Ep. 2.2.133) , kind to his wife.

dīvīna bonitās ergā hominēs (N. D. 2.60) , the divine goodness towards men.

dē benevolentiā quam quisque habeat ergā nōs (Off. 1.47) , in regard to each man's good will which he has towards us.

grātiōrem mē esse in tē (Fam. 11.10) , that I am more grateful to you.

Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive:— Such are aequālis , affīnis , aliēnus , amīcus , cōgnātus , commūnis , cōnsanguineus , contrārius , dispār , familiāris , fīnitimus , inimīcus , necessārius , pār , pecūliāris , propinquus , proprius (regularly genitive), sacer , similis , superstes , vīcīnus . quod ut illī proprium ac perpetuum sit ... optāre dēbētis (Manil. 48) , which you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.]

fuit hōc quondam proprium populī Rōmānī (id. 32), this was once the peculiar characteristic of the Roman people. [Genitive.]

cum utrīque sīs maximē necessārius (Att. 9.7A), since you are especially bound to both. [Dative.]

prōcūrātor aequē utrīusque necessārius (Quinct. 86) , an agent alike closely connected with both. [Genitive.]

The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns:— amīcus Cicerōnī, friendly to Cicero. But, Cicerōnisamīcus, a friend of Cicero; and even, Cicerōnisamīcissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.

crēticus etêius aequālis paean (Or. 215) , the cretic and its equivalent the pœan.

hī erant affīnēs istīus (Verr. 2.36) , these were this man's fellows.

After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular ( meī , tuī , etc.), and also in vērī similis, probable:— dominī similis es (Ter. Eun. 496) , you're like your master (your master's like).

ut essēmus similēs deōrum (N. D. 1.91) , that we might be like the gods.

est similismâiōrum suom (Ter. Ad. 411) , he's like his ancestors.

patris similis esse (Off. 1.121) , to be like his father.

sīmia quam similis turpissima bēstia nōbīs (N. D. 1.97, quoted from Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape!

sī enim hōcillī simile sit, est illud huic (id. 1.90), for if this is like that, that is like this.

The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in § 349 , but possessive (cf. § 343 ). For the Dative or Accusative with propior , proximus , propius , proximē , see § 432. a.

ACCUSATIVE CASE

The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjective. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative (run a race, fight a battle, see § 390). From this it would be a short step to the Factitive Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf. § 273. N.1). From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table, plug a hole, see § 387. a). Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf. § 265.3). Compare armiger , armor-bearer , with arma gerere , to bear arms; fidicen , lyre-player , with fidibus canere , to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc tāctiō (Plaut.), the [act of] touching her , with istanc tangere , to touch her (§ 388 . d. N.2). ). It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with certainty from any single function of that case.

The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows:

Direct Object

The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative (§ 274).

The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action of the verb:— (1) Brūtus Caesarem interfēcit, Brutus killed Cæsar.

(2) aedem facere, to make a temple. [Cf. proelium pūgnāre, to fight a battle, § 390.]

There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely. Thus timeō , I fear , is transitive in the sentence inimīcum timeō , I fear my enemy , but intransitive ( absolute ) in nōlī timēre , don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another: as,— Helvētiōs superāvērunt Rōmānī , the Romans overcame the Helvetians; but nihil superābat , nothing remained (was left over). So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change of meaning: as,— rīdēs , you are laughing; but mē rīdēs , you're laughing at me.

The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 275):— Brūtus Caesarem interfēcit, Brutus killed Cæsar.

Caesar ā Brūtō interfectus est, Cæsar was killed by Brutus.

domum aedificat, he builds a house.

domus aedificātur, the house is building (being built).

Certain special verbs require notice.

Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive:— meum cāsum lūctumque doluērunt (Sest. 145) , they grieved at my calamity and sorrow.

sī nōn Acrisium rīsissent Iuppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. 3.16.5) , if Jupiter and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius.

rīdētur ab omnī conventū; (Hor. S. 1.7.22), he is laughed at by the whole assembly.

For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see § 390. a.

Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative:— gemēnsīgnōminiam (Georg. 3.226) , groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. doleō .]

festīnāre fugam (Aen. 4.575) , to hasten their flight. [Cf. accelerō .]

cōmptōsārsit crīnīs (Hor. Od. 4.9.13) , she burned with love for his well-combed locks. [Cf. adamō .]

Verbs of motion, compounds of circum , trāns , and praeter , and a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. § 370. b):— mortem obīre, to die (to meet death).

cōnsulātum ineunt (Liv. 2.28) , they enter upon the consulship.

nēminem convēnī; (Fam. 9.14), I met no one.

sī īnsulam adīsset (B. G. 4.20) , if he should go to the island.

trānsīre flūmen (id. 2.23), to cross the river (cf. § 395).

cīvēs quī circumstant senātum (Cat. 1.21) , the citizens who stand about the senate.

Among such verbs are some compounds of ad , in , per , and sub .

The accusative is used after the impersonals decet , dēdecet , dēlectat , iuvat , oportet , fallit , fugit , praeterit :— ita ut vōs decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you.

mē pedibus dēlectat claudere verba (Hor. S. 2.1.28) , my delight is (it pleases me) to arrange words in measure.

nisi mē fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me).

iūvit mē tibi tuās litterās prōfuisse (Fam. 5.21.3) , it pleased me that your literary studies had profited you.

tē nōn praeterit (Fam. 1.8.2) , it does not escape your notice.

So after later in poetry and post-classical prose: as, latet plērōsque (Plin. N. H. 2.82), it is unknown to most persons. These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic signification. Hence most of them are also used personally. Decet and latet sometimes take the dative:— ita nōbīs decet (Ter. Ad. 928) , thus it befits us.

hostīque Rōma latet (Sil. It. 12.614), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.

A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are:— ferīre foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim).

vincere iūdicium (spōnsiōnem, rem, hōc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter , Aen. 6.688.]

aequor nāvigāre (Aen. 1.67) , to sail the sea. [As if it were trānsīre , § 388. b.]

maria aspera iūrō; (id. 6.351), I swear by the rough seas (cf. id. 6.324). [The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic.]

noctīs dormīre, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).

These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches the cognate construction (cf. the second example under § 390 ). In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative:— quid tibi istanc tāctiō est (Plaut. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her? [Cf. tangō.]

mīrābundī bēstiam (Ap. Met. 4.16) , full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. mīror .]

vītābundus castra (Liv. 25.13) , trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vītō .]

Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely, having their natural object in the ablative with dē (§ 273. N. 2):— priusquam Pompōnius dē êius adventū cōgnōsceret (B. C. 3.101) , before Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. êius adventū cōgnitō, his arrival being discovered.]

For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 354. b. For the Accusative after the impersonal Gerundive with esse , see § 500. 3.

Cognate Accusative

An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner.

This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of Kindred Signification:— tūtiōrem vītam vīvere (Verr. 2.118) , to live a safer life.

tertiam iam aetātem hominum vīvēbat (Cat. M. 31) , he was now living the third generation of men.

servitūtem servīre, to be in slavery.

coīre societātem, to [go together and] form an alliance.

Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take a cognate accusative of the quality:— vīnum redolēns (Phil. 2.63) , smelling [of] wine.

herbam mella sapiunt (Plin. H. N. 11.18) , the honey tastes [of] grass.

olēre malitiam (Rosc. Com. 20) , to have the odor of malice.

Cordubae nātīs poētīs, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrīnum (Arch. 26) , to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and foreign accent.

The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets:— huic errōrī similem [errōrem] īnsānīre (Hor. S. 2.3.62) , to suffer a delusion like this.

saltāre Cyclōpa (id. 1.5.63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing).

Bacchānālia vīvere (Iuv. 2.3) , to live in revellings.

Amaryllida resonāre (Ecl. 1.5) , to reëcho [the name of] Amaryllis.

intonuit laevum (Aen. 2.693) , it thundered on the left.

dulce rīdentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. 1.22.23) , sweetly smiling, sweetly prattling.

acerba tuēns (Aen. 9.794) , looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. “to look daggers.”]

torvum clāmat (id. 7.399), he cries harshly.

A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very common as cognate accusative (cf. §§ 214. d, 397. a):— Empedoclēs multa alia peccat (N. D. 1.29) , Empedocles commits many other errors.

ego illud adsentior Theophrastō; (De Or. 3.184), in this I agree with Theophrastus.

multum tē ista fefellit opīniō; (Verr. 2.1.88), you were much deceived in this expectation (this expectation deceived you much).

plūs valeō, I have more strength.

plūrimum potest, he is strongest.

quid mē ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. 2.32) , what harm do those things do me?

hōc tē moneō, I give you this warning (cf. d. N.1).

id laetor, I rejoice at this (cf. d. N.1).

quid moror, why do I delay?

quae hominēs arant, nāvigant, aedificant (Sall. Cat. 2.7), what men do in ploughing, sailing, and building.

So in many common phrases:—

sī quid ille sē velit (B. G. 1.34) , if he should want anything of him (if he should want him in anything).

numquid, Geta, aliud mē vīs (Ter. Ph. 151) , can I do anything more for you, Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form of leave-taking.]

quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hōc erat quod (Aen. 2.664), was it for this that, etc.?]

In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some other construction:— inhōc eōdempeccat, he errs in this same point.

bonīsrēbuslaetārī, to rejoice at prosperity. [Also:in, dē , or ex .]

dē testāmentōmonēre, to remind one of the will. [Later: genitive, § 351.]

officī admonēre, to remind one of his duty. [Also: dē officiō .]

In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as, multum , plūs , plūrimum ; plērumque , for the most part, generally; cēterum , cētera , for the rest, otherwise , but; prīmum , first; nihil , by no means, not at all; aliquid , somewhat; quid , why; facile , easily. So in the comparative of adverbs (§ 218 ). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and some of the examples under b may be classed as adverbial.

TWO ACCUSATIVES

Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addition to their Direct Object.

This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or (2) a Secondary Object.

Predicate Accusative

An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative.

Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object:— ō Spartace, quem enim tē potius appellem (Phil. 13.22) , O Spartacus, for what else shall I call you (than Spartacus)?

Cicerōnem cōnsulem creāre, to elect Cicero consul.

mē augurem nōmināvērunt (Phil. 2.4) , they nominated me for augur.

cum grātiās ageret quod sē cōnsulem fēcisset (De Or. 2.268) , when he thanked him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy).

hominem prae sē nēminem putāvit (Rosc. Am. 135) , he thought nobody a man in comparison with himself.

ducem sē praebuit (Vat. 33) , he offered himself as a leader.

The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as, —hominēs mītīs reddidit et mānsuētōs (Inv. 1.2) , has made men mild and gentle.

In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 284):— rēx ab suīs appellātur (B. G. 8.4) , he is called king by his subjects. [Active suī eum rēgem appellant.]

Secondary Object

The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected by the action of the verb.

Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition:— Caesar Germānōs flūmen trāicit (B. C. 1.83) , Cæsar throws the Germans across the river.

idem iūs iūrandum adigit Afrānium (id. 1.76), he exacts the same oath from Afranius.

quōs Pompêius omnia sua praesidia circumdūxit (id. 3.61), whom Pompey conducted through all his garrison.

This construction is common only with trādūcō , trāiciō , and trānsportō . The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trāns , and usually with compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used:— dōnec rēs suās trāns Halyn flūmen trāicerent (Liv. 38.25) , till they should get their possessions across the river Halys.

（exercitus) Padō trāiectus Cremōnam (id. 21.56), the army was conveyed across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, § 429. a).

The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb: as, —Belgae Rhēnum trāductī sunt (B. G. 2.4) , the Belgians were led over the Rhine. The double construction indicated in § 395 is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object.

But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative,—the same which was formerly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So trāiciō comes to mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.):— gladiō hominem trāiēcit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iaciō has lost all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the meaning of trāns , and to tell the manner of the act.]

Rhodanum trāiēcit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iaciō has become simply a verb of motion, and trāiciō is hardly distinguishable from trānseō .]

In these examples hominem and Rhodanum , which would be secondary objects if trāiēcit were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative:— homō trāiectus est gladiō, the man was pierced with a sword.

Rhodanus trāiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.

The poetical trāiectus lōra (Aen. 2.273) , pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of two constructions: (1) eum trāiēcit lōra, he rove thongs through him, Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. trāiectō fūne (Aen. 5.488) . and (2) eum trāiēcit lōrīs, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former ( lōra ) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter ( eum ) is made the subject.

Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusatives, one of the Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing (secondary object):— mē sententiam rogāvit, he asked me my opinion.

ōtium dīvōs rogat (Hor. Od. 2.16.1) , he prays the gods for rest.

haec praetōrem postulābās (Tull. 39) , you demanded this of the prœtor.

aedīlīs populum rogāre (Liv. 6.42) , to ask the people [to elect] œdiles.

docēre puerōs elementa, to teach children their A B C's.

This construction is found in classical authors with ōrō , poscō , reposcō , rogō , interrogō , flāgitō , doceō .

Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, petō ( ab ), quaerō (ex, ab, dē); usually poscō ( ab ), flāgitō ( ab ), postulō ( ab ), and occasionally others:— pācem ab Rōmānīs petiērunt (B. G. 2.13) , they sought peace from the Romans.

quod quaesīvit ex mē P. Apulêius (Phil. 6.1) , what Publius Apuleius asked of me.

With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the person or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. N.2):— Caesar sententiam rogātus est, Cæsar was asked his opinion.

id ab eō flāgitābātur (B. C. 1.71) , this was urgently demanded of him.

The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rogō , and of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs:— fuerant hōc rogātī; (Cael. 64), they had been asked this.

poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. 7.771) , I am asked for my Lælaps.

Cicerō cūncta ēdoctus (Sall. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.

But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a preposition: as, —nē postulantur quidem vīrēs ā senectüte (Cat. M. 34) , strength is not even expected of an old man (asked from old age).

The verb cēlō, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually intransitive lateō, lie hid, an accusative of the person:— nōn tē cēlāvī sermōnem T. Ampī; (Fam. 2.16.3), I did not conceal from you the talk of Titus Ampius.

nec latuēre dolī frātrem Iūnōnis (Aen. 1.130) , nor did the wiles of Juno escape the notice of her brother.

The accusative of the person with lateō is late or poetical (§ 388 . c. N.1). All the double constructions indicated in § 396 arise from the wavering meaning of the verbs. Thus doceō means both to show a thing, and to instruct a person; cēlō , to keep a person in the dark , and to hide a thing; rogō , to question a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary.

Idiomatic Uses

The Accusative has the following special uses:—

The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial Accusative):— id temporis, at that time; id (istuc) aetātis, at that age.

id (quod) genus, of that (what） sort (perhaps originally nominative).

meam vicem, on my part.

bonam partem, in a great measure; maximam partem, for the most part.

virīle (muliebre) secus, of the male (female） sex (probably originally in apposition).

quod sī, but if (as to which, if); quod nisi, if not.

The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected:— caput nectentur (Aen. 5.309) , their heads shall be bound (they shall be bound about the head).

ārdentīs oculōs suffectī sanguine et īgnī; (id. 2.210), their glaring eyes bloodshot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire).

nūda genū (id. 1.320), with her knee bare (bare as to the knee).

femur trāgulā ictus (Liv. 21.7.10) , wounded in the thigh by a dart.

This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification.

In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 156. a): inūtile ferrum cingitur (Aen. 2.510) , he girds on the useless steel.

nodō sinūs collēcta fluentīs (id. 1.320), having her flowing folds gathered in a knot.

umerōs īnsternor pelle leōnis (id. 2.722), I cover my shoulders with a lion's skin.

prōtinus induitur faciem cultumque Diānae (Ov. M. 2.425) , forthwith she assumes the shape and garb of Diana.

The Accusative is used in Exclamations:— ō fortūnātam rem pūblicam, O fortunate republic! [Cf. ō fortūnāta mor (Phil. 14.31), oh, happy death! (§ 339. a).]

ō mē īnfēlīcem (Mil. 102) , oh, unhappy I!

mē miserum, ah, wretched me!

ēn quattuor ārās (Ecl. 5.65) , lo, four altars!

ellum (=em illum), there he is! [Cf. § 146. a. N.2.]

eccōs (=ecce eōs), there they are, look at them!

prō deum fidem, good heavens (O protection of the gods)!

hōcine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304) , O this generation!

huncine hominem (Verr. 5.62) , this man, good heavens!

Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases suggests an original question, as in quid ? what? why? tell me. The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusatives. Such are:— salūtem (sc. dīcit) (in addressing a letter), greeting.

mē dīus fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith).

unde mihī lapidem (Hor. S. 2.7.116) , where can I get a stone?

quō mihi fortūnam (Hor. Ep. 1.5.12) , of what use to me is fortune? [No verb thought of.]

The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative:— intellegō tē sapere (Fam. 7.32.3) , I perceive that you are wise.

eās rēs iactārī nōlēbat (B. G. 1.18) , he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed.

This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing , thinking , telling , and perceiving (§ 580 ).

The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition with a clause:— dēserunt tribūnal ... manūs intentantēs, causam discordiae et initium armōrum (Tac. Ann. 1.27) , they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists,— a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.

This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as, Eumenem prōdidēre Antiochō , pācis mercēdem (Sall. Ep. Mith. 8) , they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus , the price of peace. [Here Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]

For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see § 427.2; for the Accusative of Duration of Time and Extent of Space, see §§ 423, 425; for the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 220.

ABLATIVE CASE

Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms of three cases,—the Ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM; the Locative, IN; and the Instrumental, WITH or BY. These three cases were originally not wholly distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the development of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the phrases ā parte dexterā , ON the right; quam ob causam , FROM which cause; ad fāmam , AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in -ē of the fifth declension (§ 96), and the loss of the original -d of the ablative (§ 49. e; cf. §§ 43. N.1, 92. f, 214. a. N.).

The relation of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison; that of WITH or BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price; that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be attached) Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and the Ablative Absolute appears to combine the Instrumental and the Locative. is set forth in the following table:—

The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in English by the prepositions from; in, at; with, by:— līberāre metū, to deliver from fear.

excultus doctrīnā, trained in learning.

hōc ipsō tempore, at this very time.

caecus avāritiā, blind with avarice.

occīsus gladiō, slain by the sword.

USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER

Ablative of Separation

Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by the ablative.

Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex):— oculīs sē prīvāvit (Fin. 5.87) , he deprived himself of eyes.

omnī Galliā Rōmānīs interdīcit (B. G. 1.46) , he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul.

eī aquā et īgnī interdīcitur (Vell. 2.45) , he is debarred the use of fire and water. [The regular formula of banishment.]

voluptātibus carēre (Cat. M. 7) , to lack enjoyments.

nōn egeō medicīnā (Lael. 10) , I want no physic.

levāmur superstitiōne, līberāmur mortis metū (Fin. 1.63) , we are relieved from superstition, we are freed from fear of death.

solūtī ā cupiditātibus (Leg. Agr. 1.27) , freed from desires.

multōs ex hīs incommodīs pecūniā sē līberāsse (Verr. 5.23) , that many have freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.

For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see § 356. N.

Verbs compounded with ā, ab , dē , ex , (1) take the simple Ablative when used figuratively; but (2) when used literally to denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a preposition (§ 426. 1):— (1) cōnātū dēsistere (B. G. 1.8) , to desist from the attempt.

dēsine commūnibus locīs (Acad. 2.80) , quit commonplaces.

abīre magistrātū, to leave one's office.

abstinēre iniūriā, to refrain from wrong.

(2) ā prōpositō aberrāre (Fin. 5.83) , to wander from the point.

dē prōvinciā dēcēdere (Verr. 2.48) , to withdraw from one's province.

ab iūre abīre (id. 2.114), to go outside of the law.

ex cīvitāte excessēre (B. G. 6.8) , they departed from the state. [But cf. fīnibus suīs excesserant (id. 4.18), they had left their own territory.]

ā māgnō dēmissum nōmen Iūlō; (Aen. 1.288), a name descended (sent down) from great Iulus.

For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see § 381. For the Ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see §§ 427. 1, 428. f.

Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the ablative:— urbs nūda praesidiō (Att. 7.13) , the city naked of defence.

immūnis mīlitiā (Liv. 1.43) , free of military service.

plēbs orba tribūnīs (Leg. 3.9), the people deprived of tribunes.

A preposition sometimes occurs:— ā culpā vacuus (Sall. Cat. 14), free from blame.

līberī ā dēliciīs (Leg. Agr. 1.27) , free from luxuries.

Messāna ab hīs rēbus vacua atque nūda est (Verr. 4.3) , Messana is empty and bare of these things.

For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see § 349. a.

Ablative of Source and Material

The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists:—

Source:— Rhēnus oritur ex Lepontiīs (B. G. 4.10) , the Rhine rises in (from) the country of the Lepontii.

ab hīs sermō oritur (Lael. 5) , the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.

cûius ratiōnis vim atque ūtilitātemex illō caelestī Epicūrīvolūmineaccēpimus (N. D. 1.43) , of this reasoning we have learned the power and advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.

suāvitātem odōrum quī afflārentur ē flōribus (Cat. M. 59) , the sweetness of the odors which breathed from the flowers.

Material:— erat tōtus ex fraude etmendāciō factus (Clu. 72) , he was entirely made up of fraud and falsehood.

valvās māgnificentiōrēs,ex aurō atqueeboreperfectiōrēs (Verr. 4.124) , more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory.

factum dē cautibus antrum (Ov. M. 1.575) , a cave formed of rocks.

templum dē marmore pōnam (Georg. 3.13) , I'll build a temple of marble.

In poetry the preposition is often omitted. The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source. For the Genitive of Material, see § 344 .

Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla tive of Source, generally without a preposition:— As nātus , satus , ēditus , genitus , ortus , prōgnātus , generātus , crētus , creātus , oriundus . Iove nātus et Mâiā (N. D. 3.56) , son of Jupiter and Maia.

ēdite rēgibus (Hor. Od. 1.1.1) , descendant of kings.

quō sanguine crētus (Aen. 2.74) , born of what blood.

genitae Pandīone (Ov. M. 6.666) , daughters of Pandion.

A preposition ( ab , dē , ex ) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors:— ex mē hīc nātus nōn est sed ex frātre meō; (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but my brother's (not born from me, etc.).

cum ex utrāque [uxōre] fīlius nātus esset (De Or. 1.183) , each wife having had a son (when a son had been born of each wife).

Bēlus et omnēs ā Bēlō (Aen. 1.730) , Belus and all his descendants.

Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as,— dēsīderāvit C. Flegīnātem Placentiā , A. Grānium Puteolīs (B. C. 3.71) , he lost Caius Fleginas of Placentia , Aulus Granius of Puteoli. The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as,— Q. Verrem Rōmiliā (Verr. 1.23) , Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe.

Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a preposition. Such are cōnstāre , cōnsistere , and continērī . The ablative with cōnsistere and continērī is probably locative in origin (cf. § 431 ). But with cōnstāre , ex is more common:— domūs amoenitās nōn aedificiō sed silvā cōnstābat (Nep. Att. 13) , the charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods.

ex animō cōnstāmus et corpore (Fin. 4.19) , we consist of soul and body.

vīta corpore et spīritū continētur (Marc. 28) , life consists of body and spirit.

The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere , fierī , and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of:— quid hōc homine faciātis (Verr. 2.1.42) , what are you going to do with this man?

quid Tulliolā meā fīet (Fam. 14.4.3) , what will become of my dear Tullia ?

quid tē futūrum est (Verr. 2.155) , what will become of you?

The Ablative of Material with ex , and in poetry without a preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun:— nōn pauca pōcula ex aurō (Verr. 4.62) , not a few cups of gold.

scopulīs pendentibus antrum (Aen. 1.166) , a cave of hanging rocks.

For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see § 346. c.

Ablative of Cause

The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express Cause:— The cause , in the ablative, is originally source , as is shown by the use of ab , dē , ex; but when the accusative with ad , ob , is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness. Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental). neglegentiā plectimur (Lael. 85) , we are chastised for negligence.

gubernātōris ars ūtilitāte nōn arte laudātur (Fin. 1.42) , the pilot s skill is praised for its service, not its skill.

certīs dē causīs, for cogent reasons.

ex vulnere aeger (Rep. 2.38) , disabled by (from) a wound.

mare ā sōle lucet (Acad. 2.105) , the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun).

The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with labōrō (also with ex ), exsiliō , exsultō , triumphō , lacrimō , ārdeō :— doleō tē aliīs malīs labōrāre (Fam. 4.3) , I am sorry that you suffer with other ills. [Cf. ex aere aliēnō labōrāre (B. C. 3.22) , to labor under debt (from another's money).]

exsultāre laetitiā, triumphāre gaudiō coepit (Clu. 14) , she began to exult in gladness, and triumph in joy.

exsiluī gaudiō (Fam. 16.16) , I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrimō gaudiō (Ter. Ad. 409) , I weep for joy.]

ārdēre dolōre et īrā (Att. 2.19.5) , to be on fire with pain and anger.

For gaudeō and glōrior , see § 431.

The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion often by ob Originally a mercantile use: cf. ob decem minās , for the price of ten minæ. or propter with the accusative:— nōn ob praedam aut spoliandī cupīdine (Tac. H. 1.63) , not for booty or through lust of plunder.

amīcitia ex sē et propter sē expetenda (Fin. 2.83) , friendship must be sought of and for itself.

But these constructions are often confused: as, —pārēre lēgibus propter metum (Par. 34) , to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equivalent to “the terrors of the law,” and hence propter is used, though the ablative would be more natural.]

The ablatives causā and grātiā, for the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement:— eā causā, on account of this; quā grātiā; (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose?

meā causā, for my sake; meā grātiā; (Plaut.), for my sake.

ex meā et reī pūblicae causā, for my own sake and the republic's.

praedictiōnis causā; (N. D. 3.5), by way of prophecy.

exemplī grātiā; (verbī grātiā), for example.

suī pūrgāndī grātiā, for the sake of clearing themselves.

But grātiā with possessives in this use is rare.

Ablative of Agent

The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with ā or ab :— laudātur ab hīs, culpātur ab illīs (Hor. S. 1.2.11) , he is praised by these, blamed by those.

ab animō tuō quidquid agitur id agitur ā tē (Tusc. 1.52) , whatever is done by your soul is done by yourself.

ā fīliīs in iūdicium vocātus est (Cat. M. 22) , he was brought to trial by his sons.

cum ā cūnctō cōnsessū plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great applause had been given by the whole audience.

nē virtūs ab audāciā vincerētur (Sest. 92) , that valor might not be overborne by audacity. [ Audācia is in a manner personified.]

This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent is conceived as the source or author of the action. The ablative of the agent (which requires ā or ab ) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument , which has no preposition (§ 409 ). Thus occīsus gladiō , slain by a sword; but, occīsus ab hoste , slain by an enemy. The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting persons , but it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing an action and so are partly or wholly personified , as in the last example under the rule.

The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intransitive verbs that have a passive sense:— perīre ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.

The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means, is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by operā with a genitive or possessive:— ab explōrātōribus certior factus est (B. G. 1.21) , he was informed by scouts (in person). But,—

per explōrātōrēs Caesar certior factus est (id. 1.12), Cæsar was informed by (means of) scouts.

ēlautae operā Neptūnī (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed clean by the services of Neptune.

nōn meā operā ēvēnit (Ter. Hec. 228) , it hasn't happened through me (by my exertions). [Cf. êius operā , B. G. 5.27.]

The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the ablative of agent, especially in military phrases: as, —haec excubitōribus tenēbantur (B. G. 7.69) , these (redoubts) were held by means of sentinels. An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument , sometimes as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur:— equō vehī, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equō .]

clipeōs ā mūribus esse dērōsōs (Div. 1.99) , that the shields were gnawed by mice.

For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see § 374.

Ablative of Comparison

The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which anything is compared is the starting-point from which we reckon. Thus, “Cicero is eloquent”; but, starting from him we come to Cato , who is “more so than he.” signifying than:— Catō est Cicerōne ēloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero.

quid nōbīs duōbus labōriōsius est (Mil. 5) , what more burdened with toil than we two?

vīlius argentum est aurō, virtūtibus aurum (Hor. Ep. 1.1.52) , silver is less precious than gold, gold than virtue.

The idiomatic ablatives opīniōne , spē , solitō , dictō , aequō , crēdibilī , and iūstō are used after comparatives instead of a clause:— celerius opīniōne (Fam. 14.23) , faster than one would think.

sērius spē omnium (Liv. 26.26) , later than all hoped (than the hope of all).

amnis solitō citātior (id. 23.19.11), a stream swifter than its wont.

gravius aequō (Sall. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right.

The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case nōn callidior es quam hīc (Rosc. Am. 49) , you are not more cunning than he.

cōntiōnibus accommodātior est quam iūdiciīs (Clu. 2) , fitter for popular assemblies than for courts.

misericordiā dīgnior quam contumēliā (Pison. 32) , more worthy of pity than of disgrace.

The construction with quam is required when the first of the things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative. There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement with a genitive, dative, or ablative: as, —senex est eō meliōre condiciōne quam adulēscēns (Cat. M. 68) , an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man; and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause: as,—minor fuit aliquantō is quī prīmus fābulam dedit quam eī quī , etc. ( Brut. 73 ), he who first presented a play was somewhat younger than those who , etc. The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam : as,—pāne egeō iam mellītīs potiōre placentīs (Hor. Ep. 1.10.11) , I now want bread better than honey-cakes. Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this construction, but always the ablative: as, rēx erat Aenēās nōbīs , quō iūstior alter nec , etc. ( Aen. 1.544 ), Æneas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous.

In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the ablative (rather than quam ) is the regular construction when the first member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative:— nihil dētestābilius dēdecore, nihil foedius servitūte (Phil. 3.36) , nothing is more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery.

nēminem esse cāriōrem tē (Att. x. 8A. 1), that no one is dearer than you.

After the comparatives plūs, minus , amplius , longius , without quam , a word of measure or number is often used with no change in its case:— plūs septingentī captī; (Liv. 41.12), more than seven hundred were taken. [Nominative.]

plūs tertiā parte interfectā; (B. G. 3.6), more than a third part being slain. [Ablative Absolute.]

aditus in lātitūdinem nōn amplius ducentōrum pedum relinquēbātur (id. 2.29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left. [Genitive of Measure: § 345. b.]

The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the comparative, which is in a sort of apposition: “seven hundred were taken [and] more.”

Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial use; in formal prose it is followed by ac ( atque ), et , more rarely by nisi , quam :— nec quicquam aliud lībertāte commūnī; (Fam. 11.2), nothing else than the common liberty.

alius Lȳsippō (Hor. Ep. 2.1.240) , another than Lysippus.

num aliud vidētur esse ac meōrum bonōrum dīreptiō; (Dom. 51), does it seem anything different from the plundering of my property?

erat historia nihil aliud nisi annālium cōnfectiō; (De O. 2.52), history was nothing else but a compiling of records.

The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam , rarely by the ablative except in poetry:— tempus tē citius quam ōrātiō dēficeret (Rosc. Am. 89) , time would fail you sooner than words. But,—

cur olīvum sanguine vīperīnō cautius vītat (Hor. Od. 1.8.9) , why does he shun oil more carefully than viper's blood?

Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante , prae , praeter , suprā) are sometimes used with a comparative: as, —scelere ante aliōs immānior omnīs (Aen. 1.347) , more monstrous in crime than all other men.

USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL

Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instrumental Ablative (see § 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a preposition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus ōrābant, they entreated with every [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished from that of manner.

Ablative of Means or Instrument

The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action:— certantēs pūgnīs, calcibus, unguibus, morsū dēnique (Tusc. 5.77) , fighting with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth.

cum pūgnīs et calcibus concīsus esset (Verr. 3.56) , when he had been pummelled with their fists and heels.

meīs labōribus interitū rem pūblicam līberāvī; (Sull. 33), by my toils I have saved the state from ruin.

multae istārum arborum meā manū sunt satae (Cat. M. 59) , many of those trees were set out with my own hands.

vī victa vīs, vel potius oppressa virtūte audācia est (Mil. 30) , violence was overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage.

The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of filling, abounding, and the like:— Deus bonīs omnibus explēvit mundum (Tim. 3) , God has filled the world with all good things.

aggere et crātibus fossās explent (B. G. 7.86) , they fill up the ditches with earth and fascines.

tōtum montem hominibus complēvit (id. 1.24), he filled the whole mountain with men.

opīmus praedā (Verr. 2.1.132) , rich with spoils.

vīta plēna et cōnferta voluptātibus (Sest.23), life filled and crowded with delights.

Forum Appī differtum nautīs (Hor. S. 1.5.4) , Forum Appii crammed with bargemen.

In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compleō and impleō sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf. § 356 ); so regularly plēnus and (with personal nouns) complētus and refertus (§ 349 . a ):— omnia plēna lūctūs et maerōris fuērunt (Sest. 128) , everything was full of grief and mourning.

ōllam dēnāriōrum implēre (Fam. 9.18) , to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]

convīvium vīcīnōrum compleō; (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.

cum complētus mercātōrum carcer esset (Verr. 5.147) , when the prison was full of traders.

The deponents ūtor , fruor , fungor , potior , vescor , with several of their compounds, These are abūtor , deūtor (very rare), dēfungor , dēfruor , perfruor , perfungor . govern the Ablative:— ūtar vestrā benīgnitāte (Arch. 18) , I will avail myself of your kindness.

ita mihi salvā rē pūblicā vōbīscum perfruī liceat (Cat. 4.11) , so may I enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous.

fungī inānī mūnere (Aen. 6.885) , to perform an idle service.

aurō hērōs potitur (Ov. M. 7.156) , the hero takes the gold.

lacte et ferīnā carne vescēbantur (Iug. 89) , they fed on milk and game.

This is properly an Ablative of Means ( instrumental ) and the verbs are really in the middle voice (§ 156 . a ). Thus ūtor with the ablative signifies I employ myself (or avail myself ) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving the construction as we find it.

Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potīri rērum, to get control or be master of affairs (§ 357. a):— tōtīus Galliae sēsē potīrī posse spērant (B. G. 1.3) , they hope they can get possession of the whole of Gaul.

In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the accusative:— fūnctus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281) , he performed the part, etc.

ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871) , he enjoys his ancestral estate.

The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the verb were transitive (but cf. § 500 . 3): as, —Hēracliō omnia ūtenda ac possidenda trādiderat (Verr. 2.46) , he had given over everything to Heraclius for his use and possession (to be used and possessed).

Opus and ūsus , signifying need, take the Ablative:— This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and ūsus mean work and service , and the ablative expresses that with which the work is performed or the service rendered. The noun ūsus follows the analogy of the verb ūtor , and the ablative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with ūsus est . magistrātibus opus est (Leg. 3.5), there is need of magistrates.

nunc vīribus ūsus (Aen. 8.441) , now there is need of strength.

The ablative with ūsus is not common in classic prose.

With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found, either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun:— opus est tuā exprōmptā malitiā atque astūtiā; (Ter. And. 723), I must have your best cunning and cleverness set to work.

properātō opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.

So rarely with ūsus in comedy: as, quid istīs ūsust cōnscrīptīs (Pl. Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing? The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions: as, quid opus factōst (cf. B. G. 1.42 ), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fierī ? with quō factō opus est ?]

Opus is often found in the predicate, with the thing needed in the nominative as subject:— dux nōbīs et auctor opus est (Fam. 2.6.4) , we need a chief and responsible adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us).

sī quid ipsī opus esset (B. G. 1.34) , if he himself wanted anything (if anything should be necessary for him).

quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14.3) , things which are required.

Ablative of Manner

The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative; usually with cum , unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun: cum celeritāte vēnit, he came with speed. But,—

summā celeritāte vēnit, he came with the greatest speed.

quid rēfert quā mē ratiōne cōgātis (Lael. 26) , what difference does it make in what way you compel me?

But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting adjective:— quantō id cum perīculō fēcerit (B. G. 1.17) , at what risk he did this.

nōn minōre cum taediō recubant (Plin. Ep. 9.17.3) , they recline with no less weariness.

With such words of manner as modō , pactō , ratiōne , rītū , vī, viā, and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as silentiō, iūre, iniūriā), cum is not used:— apis Matīnae mōre modōque carmina fingō; (Hor. Od. 4.2.28), in the style and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs.

So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum : as, —īnsequitur cumulō aquae mōns (Aen. 1.105) , a mountain of water follows in a mass. [Cf. murmure ( id . 1.124); rīmīs ( id . 1.123).]

Ablative of Accompaniment

Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum :— cum coniugibus ac līberīs (Att. 8.2.3) , with wives and children.

cum funditōribus sagittāriīsque flūmen trānsgressī; (B. G. 2.19), having crossed the river with the archers and slingers.

quae supplicātiō sī cum cēterīs cōnferātur (Cat. 3.15) , if this thanksgiving be compared with others.

quae [lēx] esse cum tēlō vetat (Mil. 11) , the law which forbids [one] to go armed (be with a weapon).

sī sēcum suōs ēdūxerit (Cat. 1.30) , if he leads out with him his associates. [For sēcum , see § 144. b. N.1.]

The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and here and there by early writers:— subsequēbātur omnibus cōpiīs (B. G. 2.19) , he followed close with all his forces. [But also cum omnibus cōpiīs , id. 1.26.]

hōc praesidiō profectus est (Verr. 2.1.86) , with this force he set out.

Misceō and iungō , with some of their compounds, and cōnfundō take either (1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum , or (2) sometimes the Dative (mostly poetical or late):— mixta dolōre voluptās (B. Al. 56) , pleasure mingled with pain.

cûius animum cum suō misceat (Lael. 81) , whose soul he may mingle with his own.

flētumque cruōrī miscuit (Ov. M. 4.140) , and mingled tears with blood.

Caesar eās cohortīs cum exercitū suō coniūnxit (B. C. 1.18) , Cæsar united those cohorts with his own army.

āēr coniūnctus terrīs (Lucr. 5.562) , air united with earth.

hūmānō capitī cervīcem equīnam iungere (Hor. A. P. 1) , to join to a human head a horse's neck.

Words of Contention and the like require cum :— armīs cum hoste certāre (Off. 3.87) , to fight with the enemy in arms.

libenter haec cum Q. Catulō disputārem (Manil. 66) , I should gladly discuss these matters with Quintus Catulus.

But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 368 . a ).

Ablative of Degree of Difference

With Comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference:— quīnque mīlibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant.

ā mīlibus passuum circiter duōbus (B. G. 5.32) , at a distance of about two miles. [For ā as an adverb, see § 433. 3.]

aliquot ante annīs (Tusc. 1.4) , several years before.

aliquantō post suspexit (Rep. 6.9) , a while after, he looked up.

multō mē vigilāre ācrius (Cat. 1.8) , that I watch much more sharply.

nihilō erat ipse Cyclōps quam ariēs prūdentior (Tusc. 5.115) , the Cyclops himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.

The ablatives quō ... eō ( hōc ), and quantō ... tantō , are used correlatively with comparatives, like the English the ... the In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the Anglo-Saxon thȳ , the instrumental case of the pronoun thæt , that. This pronoun is used both as relative ( by which, by how much ) and as demonstrative ( by that, by so much ). Thus the ... the corresponds exactly to quō ... eō . :— quō minus cupiditātis, eō plūs auctōritātis (Liv. 24.28) , the less greed, the more weight (by what the less, by that the more).

quantō erat gravior oppūgnātiō, tantō crēbriōrēs litterae mittēbantur (B. G. 5.45) , the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent.

To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quō and eō ( hōc ) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause:— eōque mē minus paenitet (N. D. 1.8) , and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so much the less I regret).

haec eō facilius faciēbant, quod (B. G. 3.12) , this they did the more easily for this reason, because, etc. [Cf. hōc mâiōre spē, quod (id. 3.9).]

The Ablative of Comparison (§ 406) and the Ablative of Degree of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective:— paulō minus ducentīs (B. C. 3.28) , a little less than two hundred.

patria, quae mihi vītā meā multō est cārior (Cat. 1.27) , my country, which is much dearer to me than life.

But the construction with quam is more common.

Ablative of Quality

The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective or genitive modifier.

This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality:— It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompaniment (§ 413 ) and manner (§ 412 ). animō meliōre sunt gladiātōrēs (Cat. 2.26) , the gladiators are of a better mind.

quae cum esset cīvitās aequissimō iūre ac foedere (Arch. 6) , as this was a city with perfectly equal constitutional rights.

mulierem eximiā pulchritūdine (Verr. 2.1.64) , a woman of rare beauty.

Aristotelēs, vir summō ingeniō, scientiā, cōpiā (Tusc. 1.7) , Aristotle, a man of the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression.

dē Domitiō dīxit versum Graecum eādem sententiā (Deiot. 25) , concerning Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.

The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, § 345 ) modifies a substantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent to adverbs.

In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently; but physical qualities are oftener denoted by the Ablative (cf. § 345. N.):— capillō sunt prōmissō (B. G. 5.14) , they have long hair.

ut capite opertō sit (Cat. M. 34) , to have his head covered (to be with covered head).

quam fuit inbēcillus P. Āfricānī fīlius, quam tenuī aut nūllā potius valētūdine (id. 35), how weak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble health, or rather none at all!

Ablative of Price

The price of a thing is put in the Ablative:— agrum vēndidit sēstertium sex mīlibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces.

Antōnius rēgna addīxit pecūniā (Phil. 7.15) , Antony sold thrones for money.

logōs rīdiculōs: quis cēnā poscit (Pl. Stich. 221) , jokes: who wants them for (at the price of) a dinner?

māgnō illī ea cūnctātiō stetit (Liv. 2.36) , that hesitation cost him dear.

To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (§ 353 . 1).

Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to denote indefinite value. Such are māgnī , parvī , tantī , quantī , plūris , minōris :— meā māgnī interest, it is of great consequence to me.

illud parvī rēfert (Manil. 18) , this is of small account.

est mihi tantī (Cat. 2.15) , it is worth the price (it is of so much).

Verrēsne tibi tantī fuit (Verr. 2.1.77) , was Verres of so much account to you?

tantōne minōris decumae vēniērunt (id. 3.106), were the tithes sold for so much less?

ut tē redimās captum quam queās minimō: sī nequeās paululō, at quantī queās (Ter. Eun. 74) , to ransom yourself, when captured, at the cheapest rate you can; if you can't for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.

These are really Genitives of Quality (§ 345 . b ).

The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefinite value. Such are nihilī ( nīlī ), nothing; assis, a farthing (rare); floccī (a lock of wool), a straw:— nōn floccī faciō; (Att. 13.50), I care not a straw. [Colloquial.]

utinam ego istuc abs tē factum nīlī penderem (Ter. Eun. 94) , O that I cared nothing for this being done by you! [Colloquial.]

With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are mūtō , commūtō , permūtō , vertō :— fidem suam et religiōnem pecūniā commūtāre (Clu. 129) , to barter his faith and conscience for money.

exsilium patriā sēde mūtāvit (Q. C. 3.7.11) , he exchanged his native land for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land).

vēlōx saepe Lucrētilem mūtat Lycaeō Faunus (Hor. Od. 1.17.1) , nimble Faunus often changes Lycœus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at the price of Lycæus, i.e. he goes from Lycæus to Lucretilis.]

vertere fūneribus triumphōs (id. 1.35.4), to change the triumph to the funeral train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.]

With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different conception of the action: as,—ariēs ... cum croceō mūtābit vellera lūtō (Ecl. 4.44) , the ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow saffron.

With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price must be used, except in the case of tantī , quantī , plūris , minōris :— quantī eam ēmit? vīlī ... quot minīs? quadrāgintā minīs (Pl. Epid. 51) , what did he buy her for? Cheap. For how many minœ? Forty.

Ablative of Specification

The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is or is done:— virtūte praecēdunt (B. G. 1.1) , they excel in courage.

claudus alterō pede (Nep. Ages. 8) , lame of one foot.

linguā haesitantēs, vōce absonī; (De Or. 1.115), hesitating in speech, harsh in voice.

sunt enim hominēs nōn rē sed nōmine (Off. 1.105) , for they are men not in fact, but in name.

mâior nātū, older; minor nātū, younger (cf. § 131. c).

paulum aetāte prōgressī; (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age.

corpore senex esse poterit, animō numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old man in body, he never will be [old] at heart.

To this head are to be referred many expressions where the ablative expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done:— meō iūre, with perfect right; but, meō modō, in my fashion.

meā sententiā, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex meā sententiā . [Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification, the second source.]

propinquitāte coniūnctōs atque nātūrā (Lael. 50) , closely allied by kindred and nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above, but no doubt is a development of means.]

quī vincit vīribus (id. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible to tell whether vīribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect to which one is superior.]

As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instrumental ) is closely akin to that of manner , and shows some resemblance to means and cause.

For the Supine in -ū as an Ablative of Specification, see § 510.

The adjectives dīgnus and indīgnus take the ablative:— vir patre, avō, mâiōribus suīs dīgnissimus (Phil. 3.25) , a man most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.

tē omnī honōre indīgnissimum iūdicāvit (Vat. 39) , he judged you entirely unworthy of every honor.

So the verb dīgnor in poetry and later prose: as, —haud equidem tālī mē dīgnor honōre (Aen. 1.335) , I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor. Dīgnus and indīgnus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and in poetry:— cūram dīgnissimam tuae virtūtis (Balbus inAtt. 8.15), care most worthy of your noble character.

dīgnus salūtis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety.

māgnōrum haud umquam indīgnus avōrum (Aen. 12.649) , never unworthy of my great ancestors.

Ablative Absolute

A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute:— The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, sometimes explained as an outgrowth of the locative , and in any event certain locative constructions (of place and time ) must have contributed to its development. Caesar, acceptīs litterīs, nūntium mittit (B. G. 5.46) , having received the letter, Cæsar sends a messenger (the letter having been received).

quibus rēbus cōgnitīs Caesar apud mīlitēs cōntiōnātur (B. C. 1.7) , having learned this, Cæsar makes a speech to the soldiers.

fugātō omnī equitātū (B. G. 7.68) , all the cavalry being put to flight.

interfectō Indūtiomārō (id. 6.2), upon the death of Indutiomarus.

nōndum hieme cōnfectā in fīnīs Nerviōrum contendit (id. 6.3), though the winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii.

compressī [sunt] cōnātūs nūllō tumultū pūblicē concitātō (Cat. 1.11) , the attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm.

nē vōbīs quidem omnibus rē etiam tum probātā (id. 2.4), since at that time the facts were not yet proved even to all of you.

The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is, however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name absolute ( absolūtus , i.e. free or unconnected ). A substantive in the ablative absolute very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause.

An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the Ablative Absolute construction:— The present participle of esse , wanting in Latin (§ 170 . b ), is used in Sanskrit and Greek as in English. exiguā parte aestātis reliquā (B. G. 4.20) , when but a small part of the summer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).

L. Domitiō Ap. Claudiō cōnsulibus (id. 5.1), in the consulship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius (Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius [being] consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see § 424. g.]

nīl dēspērandum Teucrō duce et auspice Teucrō (Hor. Od. 1.7.27) , there should be no despair under Teucer's leadership and auspices (Teucer being leader, etc.).

A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective:— incertō quid peterent (Liv. 28.36) , as it was uncertain what they should aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).

compertō vānum esse formīdinem (Tac. Ann. 1.66) , when it was found that the alarm was groundless.

cūr praetereātur dēmōnstrātō (Inv. 2.34) , when the reason for omitting it has been explained (why it is passed by being explained).

This construction is very rare except in later Latin.

A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the ablative absolute without a substantive:— cōnsultō (Off. 1.27) , on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on).

mihi optātō vēneris (Att. 13.28.3) , you will come in accordance with my wish.

serēnō (Liv. 31.12) , under a clear sky (it [being] clear).

nec auspicātō nec lītātō (id. 5.38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice.

tranquillō, ut âiunt, quīlibet gubernātor est (Sen. Ep. 85.34) , in good weather, as they say, any man's a pilot.